Electronic Resource Centre for Human Rights Education: Table
of Contents | Human Rights Education in South Korea Soon-Won Kang
Even now that the military dictatorial regime has been ousted, it remains difficult to talk about human rights in South Korea. Teachers are reluctant to use the terminology of human rights education (HRE) and feel more comfortable handling values, moral or democratic-civic education classes, which teach conformity to social norms. Corporal punishment is usual in Korean schools. HRE emphasizes the rights of students as individuals not protected by teachers or school regulations. Teachers' rights are at odds with students' rights. Caning is treated not as a structural educational problem but as exceptional behavior of overly enthusiastic teachers, even as an act of love. However, when the news of caning becomes public, the teachers are treated as immoral and abnormal. Students' and teachers' rights should be balanced against each other. The fact that teachers' rights are not protected in the classroom or by the school administration is yet another HRE issue. Schools are central to children's lives. Children who arrive late at school are turned in by school monitors to strict teachers for corporal punishment. Some children are isolated or bullied by their classmates. Some are beaten and robbed by other students. Sometimes teachers inspect students' belongings without permission. High school students study until midnight to prepare for the university entrance examinations. Those in vocational departments, however, are treated as second-class students. Schools are no longer places of education. They are dreadful places where children lose their dreams and hopes. The long, feudal Confucian tradition, the imperialist culture produced by years of colonialism, the ideological antagonism caused by the nation's division, the materialism born of economic development during the military dictatorship, and our own lack of identity, overwhelm the schools. Students—whether academically good or not—do not truly understand the goal of studying hard. At one school, a teacher who criticized school policy was shamed by the principal in front of his students. Teachers have no autonomy; students have no freedom. Principals who wish to make their schools democratic suffer in the same way. Clearly, everyone will benefit from HRE. This essay exposes human rights abuses in schools and shows why HRE has been neglected. Categories of Human Rights Issues in the Schools Korea is a bureaucratic and authoritarian country. Education is inflexible and uniform, and standardized by university entrance examinations. Competition at school is terrible. Students must make their way through an educational system that has insufficient state funds. Poor schools in a rich country -- this is the reality of Korean education. Human rights problems are classified into three: Students' Human Rights Korea is a newly industrialized country that aspires to international standards of academic excellence. Students at all levels are forced to compete against each other. Universities are ranked according to their social prestige and are very difficult to get into. Many students attend expensive special schools after regular school hours to give them a competitive edge. All children are thus subject to severe pressure. One's success means another's defeat. Some desperate teenagers commit suicide. Five years ago, an honor student killed herself; her suicide note read, "Happiness is not the same as an examination grade." After that incident, some people tried to campaign for better conditions in schools. They were not successful. Teachers still hit students with a ruler or stick, kick them and verbally abuse them. Lower-class children are abused more harshly than upper-class ones. They have no means of appeal. The worst case on record is that of 12-year-old boy who died after being beaten by his teacher in 1993. A report on youth problems says that the most serious problem for Korean students is corporal punishment. However, whipping is legal, even a sign of "love." It supposedly builds character and prepares students for the real world. Many middle-class students are under constant pressure by their parents to study hard; but poor children are often left alone at home. There are not enough daycare centers to care for lower-class children. Five years ago, two children died in a fire at home because their parents had locked the door when they went out to work. Public opinion forced the government to enact a law establishing daycare centers for children of working mothers. However, the government failed to implement the law due to lack of funds. Consequently, all children in Korea continue to be abused: middle-class children are crushed by unrelenting competition and have no friends, while poor children are neglected and discriminated against by their teachers and society. Teachers' Human Rights Korean schools are either public or private, but all are subject to government control. No school can decide what kind of education to offer. All teachers must follow the national teaching guidelines. They cannot decide what or how to teach. Some formed a union in order to fight for more autonomy and democracy. Unfortunately, the military government banned it, fearing that it would be a communist mouthpiece. In 1989, the teachers established the Korean National Teachers Union (KTU). The government barred from teaching 1,700 members who refused to withdraw from the union. Although 30,000 teachers supported the union and most parents favor it, the union remained illegal. Even when free elections in 1992 gave Korea a civilian President, the quasi-civilian government asked the union to pull down its flag. In 1993, many teachers reluctantly withdrew from the union and went back to school, but 300 union leaders are still refused entry to their schools. Now there is only one teachers organization—the government-sponsored Korean Federation of Teacher's Associations. Fortunately, the 1998 elections brought President Kim Dae Jung to power. One of his campaign promises was to legalize the KTU; he kept his promise in January 1999. As Korean education is centralized, competitive and bureaucratic, teachers are burdened by much paper work. They have to test the students weekly, monthly, at the end of the semester, at the end of the year, and prepare them for high school and university entrance examinations. With so many examination papers to grade and grade lists to prepare, they have little time to get to know the students intimately. As they have 40-60 pupils in one class, they cannot help classifying students into "clever" and "less able." They have no freedom to interpret textbooks from their own point of view because they must prepare the students for standardized entrance examinations. In 1989, a teacher was dismissed for teaching post-World War II Korean history from her own viewpoint. Forty-three professors signed a petition supporting her and advocating "freedom to teach," but to no avail. As teachers are evaluated by the head teacher for promotion or transfer, they obey their superiors. It is impossible for an individual teacher to make education more humane. One teacher was bitter: "I am a machine in a huge corporation that turns out capitalist human beings. The owner is the headmaster and the parents are the investors who watch me constantly. In order to survive at school, I have to give up my dignity." Parents' Rights As Korean education is so centralized, there is hardly any place for parents in the system. They cannot even fight back when their children are beaten or sexually abused at school. They can only resort to bribing teachers not to neglect their children. Parents' associations are made up only of rich parents; they are one of the few places where mothers exert their power. Rich parents enjoy many privileges denied to the poor ones. They know only that education will bring future social success; they do not care that their children suffer stress in school, and push them to compete. However, parents say that they are the victims too, because they have no time for themselves. Their lives revolve around their children's studies, from dawn to midnight. The 1993 census showed that the most serious problem for housewives in their 40s was whether or not their children would be accepted by a university. They close their eyes to violations of students' and teachers' human rights, and are concerned only for their own children. They give teachers a token of gratitude at the beginning of the school term. Children of the poor, however, are ignored and abused at school. In keeping with Korea's Confucian tradition, many parents believe that their children must obey the teachers. But lately, the government has tried to make schools more democratic, and parents have also tried to form truly representative parents' organizations. Parents are starting to participate in school decision making through the school governing committees, which were started in 1996, although they are still reluctant to discuss educational subjects. But they do help determine educational policy at the local level. They want organizations that will democratize education; some parents want middle-class-oriented organizations, while others want to radically transform the educational structure. The Social Context of HRE While HRE has universal characteristics, it also reflects its historical context. Since independence from Japanese colonization, the language of human rights in South Korea has been highly political, used in relation to political prisoners, torture and confinement of people of conscience, censorship, arbitrary detention of students or workers fighting for democracy. Human rights have always been a political goal and not a subject to be taught in schools. HRE has gone through four stages since independence. The first stage was from 1945 to 1960, during which there was no formal HRE. The country was liberated from Japan, it was divided, and the Korean War broke out. The urgent task of the Korean people was to build a democratic nation with foreign financial aid. But the Korean War in 1950 and the country's division fostered hostility between north and south. The Cold War ideology of the dictatorial South Korean government encouraged inflexible anti-communism among the people. The government controlled and mobilized people with a state-building ideology based on nationalism. The concepts of freedom of thought and expression or human rights were seen as threats to national security. Educational facilities were so poor that primary schools had two or three shifts, with over 80 students in a classroom. Qualified teachers were so few that less qualified teachers who had undergone only short-term training had to be recruited. The legacy of colonial education was a strongly centralized educational administration, uniform school curriculum, hierarchical teacher-student relationship, legitimization of corporal punishment, competitive entrance exams, and so on. Teachers and students had no dignity. Students at all levels were mobilized for government demonstrations as well as birthday parties of President Rhee Seung-Man. Strictly controlled military reviews of the students' National Defense Corps were held as patriotic exercises against North Korea. The second stage was from 1960 to 1980. The democracy movement against the military dictatorship clashed with the government's program of quick economic growth. From being an anti-government political struggle, the movement expanded to include the struggle for human rights. Threatened, the newly emerging power elite launched a coup d'etat in 1960 in response to the April democratic revolution. In the name of national security, the military and big business instituted emergency measures beginning in 1975 and amended the Constitution in order to suppress the movement and people's basic rights. The government used the schools, media and religion to foster a collective ideology for survival. It imprisoned and tortured thousands of protestors. Still, the movement grew. Movements of students, workers and peasants supported each other. Violations of human rights were widespread. The teachers' union movement, inaugurated on 19 April 1960, spread all over the country. However, it was destroyed by the 16 May coup d'etat in 1961. Teachers now had a single task: to follow the government's curriculum. But the student movement made itself heard in the 1960s and 1970s. Students and teachers involved in the democracy movement were expelled. Naturally, schools had no HRE. They used corporal punishment in primary and secondary schools; they censored books; they denied students and teachers freedom of thought, expression and assembly in and out of the school; and they monitored what teachers taught. The third stage was from 1980 to 1992. It was a period of more diversity of thought. After the massacre in Kwangju in 1980, people of conscience started to discuss the direction of reunification. Anti-U.S. sentiment was so strong among many young protestors that they were imprisoned for violating the National Security Law. The slaughter of ordinary people in Kwangju, the dehumanizing detention of and violence against young people, the violent suppression of human rights marches, the human rights abuses of Korean women near the U.S. military camps, all forced Koreans to reflect on their country's situation. The enemy was not merely the government. The U.S. had for so long intervened in domestic affairs and supported the military dictatorship in order to serve its own economic interests. Movements in the 1980s were thus anti-U.S. and pro-reunification. While the human rights movements in the 1960s and 1970s were bourgeois movements led by the intelligentsia, the social movement in the 1980s splintered into various sectarian movements whose main goal was the abolition of the National Security Law. Visits to North Korea by dignitaries such as Reverend Ikhwan Moon or Sookyung Lim pushed the democratization movement beyond the ideological constraints of the time. A similar shift occurred in education. Parents' movements and teachers' union movements were born, although they were repressed by the government. The journal Minjung Education, published in 1985 by volunteers, was labeled radical and declared illegal. The teachers on its staff were all fired. This gave rise to the formation of the National Teachers Association in 1987, which then became the KTU in 1989. The approximately 2,000 teachers who never resigned from the KTU were expelled from their schools. At the same time, a number of students under stress of examinations committed suicide. Concerned teachers declared their support for students' rights and parents formed their own movement. Teachers and parents tried to boost the children's self-confidence and self-respect through cultural activities. The government, however, continued to train children in self-denial. Teenagers, especially, were abused even more than before. Child suicides brought examination stress, detention to midnight and corporal punishment out in the open. The fourth stage began in 1993 and continues today. HRE began to bloom in schools. Human rights issues surfaced, as well as social concerns such as the suffering of comfort women during the colonial regime, Korean prostitutes near U.S. military bases, undocumented low-paid foreign laborers, and violations of students' rights by teachers or peers. NGOs looked to the international network, including the UN, for solidarity. Human rights NGOs are doing much to raise the level of democracy in Korea. For example, the Association of Lawyers for Democracy, and Sarangbang of the Human Rights Movement influence public opinion regarding human rights. And since President Kim Dae-Jung is much more concerned about human rights and peace than his predecessors, there may be much progress in human rights and in education as well. In 1993, many teachers who were fired for being members of the KTU returned to work on the condition that they would resign from the KTU. Now they are among the most enthusiastic in developing programs to democratize education. Thoughtful parents no longer endure the abuse of their children's rights. The school culture has improved due to democratic school regulations. In 1996, the school-governing committee played an active role in transforming the bureaucratic school administration into a democratic participatory structure of teachers, parents and community members. The Presidential Advisory Educational Committee suggested an educational reform agenda for civic-democratic education, including HRE. Some groups in the education system, however, resisted these moves. In 1991, the Korean government ratified the International Convention of the Rights of the Child. In 1997, Korea joined the OECD. Now the government is required to develop educational programs to promote human rights. It can do so in collaboration with government organizations, NGOs and educators. What about the Future? Korea is a growth-oriented society. For the sake of economic growth, we have endured political dictatorship, economic injustice, social corruption and abuse of basic human rights. It is time to share society's wealth with others and turn our eyes to human rights and world peace. HRE should therefore teach not only human rights, but change people's attitudes and values so that they will have self-respect as well as respect for others, and transform a violent society into one that values peace, justice and human rights. For HRE workers I suggest several tasks. First, change the school ethos in order to bring HRE into the schools. School regulations, education laws and the Constitution must also be revised. Second, bring HRE to the broader Korean society. Third, publish manuals on HRE for teachers. We need an international network to support human rights organizations in Korea. Through it we can learn how to improve the school curriculum on human rights, learn from experiences in other countries and tell the global village about our own experiences.
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Human Rights Education in Korean Schools Won-il Heon
Many dream of a happy, discrimination-free society. If human rights are violated even in a remote corner of the world, we cannot say we live in a happy society. A society where those with power and wealth suppress others just because of differences of ideas cannot be a humane one. Education should be a systematic and cultural process in which one strives to create a society where liberty and equality go hand in hand. Unfortunately, Korean education has foisted oppression and inequality upon the majority of the masses. Korea's modernization process was attended by foreign occupation and rule, which led to the Korean War and the country's division. The divided Koreas, currently under a truce, confront and compete with each other. The military regime influenced and controlled the content of textbooks, and education degenerated into a means to justify and advocate military rule. In 1998, life-time dissident Kim Dae-jung, who fought against the military regime, was sworn in as President. He is more aware of the importance of democracy and human rights than anybody else. Thus, many political prisoners were freed; a human rights law was enacted; a human rights committee was formed; human rights for children were declared; corporal punishment is now prohibited by law in schools; the local education office drew up guidelines regarding respect for students' human rights; and a domestic violence prevention law was enacted. All these represent great social progress. However, laws and organizations are not enough to change a society long unaccustomed to democracy and human rights. Causes of Lack of Social Recognition of Human Rights The characteristics of Korean society are rooted in Korea's unique history. In her modernization period (the late 19th to the early 21st century), Korea was invaded by the Western powers and ultimately occupied by Japan (1910-1945). Even after liberation from Japanese colonial rule, Korea continued to be divided by fratricidal war and ideological confrontations. The mutual slander, hate and death of millions caused by the Korean War created a chasm between the two Koreas. Even after the war, many people on both sides suffered because of their governments' ideological differences. It was difficult for democracy to take root. In the South, the ceasefire delayed the practice of democracy; anti-communists were considered to be patriots. It was in this context that the military seized power and those opposed to the military regime were stigmatized as "pro-communists"; some were even put to death. The military regime promoted a regional confrontation between Cholla Province in western Korea, where President Kim Dae-jung was born, and Kyongsang Province in the east. Regionalism has made it difficult for people in the east and west to marry each other. It has also influenced politics. Incorporated into the Confucianist Chosun Dynasty's kinship, factionalism, patriarchy, family and group consciousness, regionalism has worked as a cultural impediment to the practice of democracy and human rights. The family-first and group-first traditions created a vertical order in which women's absolute sacrifice and obedience to men and children's respect for seniors are regarded as virtues. Confucianist traditions influence people's behavior: they still prefer boys to girls; there is a hierarchy of the old and the young. The "Miracle of Han River" that was achieved by the military regime after the 1960s was established at the expense of democracy, human rights and the environment. Rapid economic development has produced side effects and social illnesses such as selfishness, materialism, human trafficking, child prostitution, teenage pregnancy, etc. The human rights of the handicapped, unemployed and poor, social outcasts and daily hired workers, foreign workers and homosexuals have long been marginalized until recently. Education in Schools Undemocratic Administration of Education The term "democracy" was considered dead, as it was found only in textbooks. A course named "Good Citizenship" (literally translated as "Ethics"), which is not taught anywhere else outside of Korea, was taught to legitimize the military regime. Education was standardized to conform to military rule. The state monopolized the publication of textbooks or at least controlled their contents. Until the early 1980s, students had to memorize the "The National Charter of Education" and to take a military drill course. The Student National Defense Corps replaced the students' autonomous association. As for teachers, the formation of a labor union has not been permitted by law. The Korea Teachers' Union, a teachers' voluntary organization, has just been recently legalized. The government has been pursuing an "educational reform" which focuses on the democratization of education and promotion of human rights. It is no doubt a progressive regime compared with former regimes in that it stresses the importance of human rights and democracy. However, it is very difficult to tear down all the undemocratic and anti-human-rights practices in the political, economical, social, cultural and educational arenas all at once. Education is one of the most conservative areas in society. Before anything else, the mindset and attitude of educational bureaucrats, private school foundations, and principals must be changed, many of whom were more concerned about keeping their positions in the authoritarian regimes. Their educational philosophy is so conservative that they think it is their duty to control students and teachers. Democracy in education requires teachers and parents to voluntarily step forward in parallel with government's strong educational democratization policy. Education Aimed at Entrance Examinations Education in Korea is rigid, placing an excessive emphasis on college entrance examinations. Students, teachers and parents have only one concern: that students get good grades so that they can enter good colleges. Thus, the majority of students are sacrificed for the minority that is bent on attending college. Anyone left behind in the competition is stigmatized as a "problem child," despised and discriminated against. Chances are that these children will become rebellious or social delinquents. In fact, "school violence," which is a serious problem in Korea, stems from a grade-oriented education. The discrimination against those who are not successful in school is attributable to the competitive education that puts excessive emphasis on grades. Students who misbehave in class or do not follow teachers' instructions or school rules receive corporal punishment. Only good grades and passing the college entrance examinations are considered important while many inhumane situations are often justified and overlooked. Activities unconnected to studying are regarded as sinful. Extracurricular activities, including the homeroom period, club activities and student body government activities are for appearance's sake. Teachers seldom have a chance to talk about social reality or to maintain a close relationship with students. Those who do so are considered subversive by principals or parents. Teachers counsel and students only about grades and violations of school rules. HRE should be about developing ways of thinking and attitudes respectful of man's dignity and rights; developing social ego in relationship with other individuals; and finding the meaning and value of life. However, harsh conditions make it difficult to learn about human rights. To expect poorly performing students in schools to have self-esteem, to love other people or to care for others is just like looking for fish in a tree. Poor Educational Facilities; Lack of Investment in Education Another problem is school and class size. In urban areas, the average number of students in most schools is over 2,000 and in a class it is over 40. All wearing uniforms, they blend into a faceless mass, "a group of students who receive education in a certain area for a certain period." So, it is difficult to know students as individuals with various abilities and potentials. There are not enough rooms or facilities for the great number of students. Welfare facilities are few and of poor quality. Schools are even short of chairs and books. Libraries have few books. Water fountains, locker rooms and personal lockers are luxuries. Programs and facilities for extracurricular activities are also limited. A satirical comment on Korean education goes: "In a 19th-century environment, 20th-century teachers teach 21st-century students." Of course, it is an obvious improvement that computers, albeit outdated ones, are widely provided in schools. But the provision of computers does not necessarily improve the welfare and cultural environment of students when basic facilities are scanty. Investment in educational facilities is urgently needed in view of "students' human rights." Prisoners' rights are often called attention to due to poor penitentiary facilities. Schools are similar deprived: they have no gymnasiums, so students can play only on the playgrounds; but junior students cannot play while senior students are playing. Environment shapes personality. It is difficult to educate students about democracy and human rights in a poor physical environment. The fact that space and facilities are regarded merely as an "accommodating place" is likely to affect students in a negative way. Students and Teachers are Submissive to Control and Surveillance As education focuses on passing entrance examinations, students and teachers find it almost impossible to understand human dignity or to care about others. Competition among students leads to competition among teachers, which in turn leads to competition among schools and their principals. Parents have no choice but to accept this reality. The local community is also keenly interested in the results of college entrance examinations as they affect the price of real estate. Thus, schools justify the use of corporal punishment and disciplinary measures on students. The school uniform is an efficient way of controlling students. Many parents and teachers believe that wearing uniforms keeps students mentally armed. Students should also wear socks and shoes that match their uniform and keep their hair tidy, not too long yet not too short. Otherwise, they become stigmatized as "problem children" and must reflect upon their wrong deeds. Dress inspection is conducted frequently at schools. Although it may infringe upon students' human rights, it is tolerated in most schools. The practice of inspecting students' belongings allows teachers to search students' bodies and bags without their consent. This has become routine and students may not complain. No machinery or procedure protects students against infringements on their human rights. When students are disciplined for violating school rules, they and their parents may not protest. Those who have been disciplined are sometimes encouraged to transfer to another school although schools are reluctant to admit them. Teachers are controlled by principals, and students, in turn, are controlled and watched by teachers. Teachers cannot participate in running a school. They do not even think about it. Students cannot participate in school affairs. HRE should start from the perception that teachers and students learn through collective activities enhancing social relationships, their interests and rights. Issues in HRE Although it is important to teach the concept and history of universal human rights in the context of world history, true HRE requires one to begin from the history and reality of local society. The greatest historical reality of Korean society may be the "division" between South and North. It is crucial to understand that the structural constraint of division defines various sectors of society in Korea's HRE. The task of overcoming the division of the two Koreas is a key factor in the efforts to improve the human rights situation in Korea as it is the greatest obstacle to moving toward democracy. The National Security Law restrains the freedom of thought and conscience while questions of "security" based on anti-communism overwhelm all other logic. Education cannot be free of the security logic. Human rights issues in Korea are closely intertwined with efforts to develop democracy and overcome the division. It is for this reason that the HRE movement in Korea is different from that in Western states. HRE in Korea remains in its infancy. The need and importance of HRE are so widely recognized that the government has made efforts to enact a human rights law, organize a human rights committee, draft a human rights declaration for children and student rights declaration, and the like. It is a great stride toward the improvement of human rights. The human rights movement has become a citizens movement. But as the Korean citizens movement is not yet full-fledged, it will take time for society to recognize human rights. In HRE, we do not have to touch on the
fundamental issue of division. Rather, we can discuss specific issues such as school
violence and bullying and textbook lessons, which represent the living experience of
democracy. The school can select for discussion such social issues as regional
discrimination, discrimination against females, sexual assault, arrogance of power,
immoral business activities, the gap between rich and poor. Students and teachers can
organize trips to facilities for the handicapped, the aged or orphans and share their
lives with them. Such activities may be carried out in cooperation with the local
community. The fact that such efforts exist is a hopeful sign. In order that these efforts
may continue, Korean education needs to be reformed and school facilities improved;
college entrance examinations should be reformed; school administrations should be more
democratic; classes should have fewer students; and students' autonomous activities should
be supported. ---oOo---
How to Use Human Rights Education: How to Implement It Byung Ok Park
Textbooks assume great importance in the Korean education system. Teaching and learning are textbook-oriented. Textbooks are an integral part of the whole teaching/learning process, especially because the university entrance examination emphasizes thorough mastery of textbooks. Thus, if you want to improve human rights education (HRE) in Korea, the best way is to include as many HRE components in textbooks as possible. However, it is hardly an easy job when the central government controls the preparation, publication, dissemination and revision of textbooks. So Human Rights Education: How to Implement It adopts a method of analyzing the structure and content of textbooks used at the lower-secondary school level and provides model lesson plans and other information to help teachers conduct HRE. Published in 1997 by the Korean National Commission for UNESCO and funded by the Ministry of Education, the book was welcomed in education circles as a rare and pioneering program in HRE, a long-neglected area in Korean education. About a decade ago, under an authoritarian regime, many teachers campaigned to create an autonomous teachers union. In order to improve education and make it more democratic, they formed study groups and other organizations. One of their great concerns was to improve HRE in schools. The authors of the book came from different teachers groups, as follows:
Although they felt a strong need to improve HRE, administrative and financial reasons prevented them from studying HRE issues in-depth, scientifically or systematically, and from publishing their ideas. Finally, however, a project administered by the Korean National Commission for UNESCO in 1997 and funded by the Ministry of Education gave them the opportunity to disseminate their ideas. Contents of the book The book is composed of three sections. The first deals with theory and techniques in HRE. The second analyzes lower-secondary school textbooks from the perspective of human rights and highlights the relationship between the textbooks' sub-topics and human rights objectives. The third presents sample lesson plans, which are the result of the authors' experiences in 1998. The book covers two subjects: Moral Education and Social Studies. It also includes extracurricular activities.
The first chapter, "What are Human Rights?" defines and presents concepts related to human rights. Chapter 2, "Human Rights and Awareness of Human Rights," introduces the history and background of human rights, showing how human rights developed in three generations and analyzing why human rights awareness is weak in Korea. It suggests five reasons: remnants of the feudal consciousness; an immature democracy; an unhealthy level of competitiveness; ideological conflicts arising from the division of the country; and lack of tolerance. Chapter 3, "Human Rights and Human Rights Education," attempts to answer the question: What is HRE in the Korean context? It first examines human rights principles in relation to Korea and urges that HRE be introduced immediately in schools. The authors say that the education system fosters selfishness and overly emphasizes passing the university entrance examination. HRE is presented as a challenge to this situation. The writer describes the need for HRE at different school levels and suggests how it can help make schools peaceful places where culture and civilization can be imparted. The second section of Chapter 3 suggests two ways of presenting HRE. One is positive, using diverse materials, information and knowledge on human rights. The other is negative, emphasizing human rights violations or abuses. The next section shows situations in which a child's rights are vulnerable to violation by family, school and society. The following list details many of these cases. Family: Abuse of children, indifference to children, leaving children home alone, using children to satisfy the parents' own ambitions, abandonment of infants, artificial abortion. School: Collective bullying, intolerance to other-ness, physical punishment, teachers' prejudice, poor school environment, lack of religious freedom, lack of privacy, lack of sex education. Society: Violation of the right to life, the rights of the handicapped, civic rights, rights of foreign laborers, human rights of prisoners of conscience; death penalty; compulsory use of the electronic I.D. card; lack of facilities for the handicapped; situations that produce drug addicts, alcoholics, etc. Finally, the chapter describes six techniques useful to teaching human rights: concept analysis, value clarification, role play, cooperative inquiry, problem solving, and modeling by teacher.
Moral Education as a school subject has existed in the country for many years, reflecting Koreans' appreciation of morality as an essential quality of an educated person. Since morality includes appreciation and/or respect for human dignity, human rights is supposed to be an integral part of Moral Education. However, Moral Education textbooks do not touch on human rights. The term 'human rights' does not often appear in them. Human-rights-related concepts and principles are mentioned only implicitly. However, the book is based on the belief that if Moral Education aims to teach students to be humane and cultured, it should be firmly established on the principles of human rights. This chapter tries to illustrate the links between current textbook subject matter and HRE topics through a table. A portion of the table, taken from the Moral Education textbook for grade 7, is shown below. Table 1. Textbook subjects and HRE topics
The current Moral Education textbook has the following characteristics. First, it stresses responsibilities rather than rights. Social responsibility is emphasized as the most important element of democratic attitudes. Second, it focuses too much on the first generation of human rights concepts.
In Social Studies, the term "human rights" is not explicitly used either. However, it is generally agreed that democracy was achieved as a result of the widening concept of human rights; studies on civic society and democracy should therefore be based on the appreciation and awareness of various human rights principles. Lower-secondary school Social Studies covers geography, history and civics. Civics, which is concentrated in grade 9, is closest to human rights ideas. The Social Studies textbooks do not have overt HRE objectives. It is therefore necessary to prepare lesson plans based on the relationship established between the textbook subject matter and HRE topics. This chapter begins with two different approaches to human rights. The first is based on the idea that "every human being is entitled to a minimum living standard to maintain human dignity." It naturally takes a historical and sociological approach to human rights. The second one asks, "Who is responsible for the expenses to guarantee minimum living standard? What is meant by 'minimum'?" This approach is philosophical and ethical. With the first approach in mind, the writer uses the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action on Human Rights (1993) to classify human rights (see Tables 2 and 3). Table 2. Universal Declaration on Human Rights and Types of Human Rights
Table 3. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action on Human Rights and Types of Human Rights
With regard to the second approach, the writer provides the following table. Table 4. Classification of Human Rights Concepts
The contents of these tables are compared with the contents of Social Studies textbooks in order to give teachers an idea about how and what to teach. For example, the following description in the book gives an idea of this approach. "HRE based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action on Human Rights" (The following relationship is established on the basis of Tables 2 and 3.) Principles of democracy as vehicles to guarantee basic rights Unit II, "Democratic Politics and Civil Life," covers basic principles of democracy such as power distribution, constitutionalism, civil rights and the democratic political system including election and parties. Also covered are democratic participatory procedures and decision making as well as the powers of major government organizations. The unit aims to clarify the fundamentals and systems of democracy, the roles of members of a democratic society, and desirable civilian attitudes. The unit does not directly mention human rights. However, the basics of democracy are described as ways and means to ensure the protection of basic rights. Therefore, there is room enough to incorporate human rights perspectives. For example, the unit touches on the following human rights: human dignity, freedom and equality; equality before law; a right to remedy human rights violations; freedom of expression and of opinion; right to participate in politics and vote by secret ballot; right to social protection. It also stresses that one should respect other people's freedoms and rights. The following are categories of human rights:
The writer does not forget to mention the demerits of the Social Studies textbook. The little mention of human rights in it does not seem to be the result of intentional attention to human rights. The textbook hardly mentions the rights of aborigines, the handicapped, children and minorities. Describing political and legal equality in general, it hardly mentions discrimination against women. Generally talking about labor conditions and social protection, it rarely addresses the rights of foreign workers. Secondly, the textbook lacks concrete case studies of human rights abuse and violations in Korean society.
The writer believes that the school environment, especially the teachers' role, greatly influences the formation of students' personality and values. He looks at cases of human rights issues in school or where teachers demonstrate prejudices or stereotypes about students, such as the following:
The writer describes these as problems which need to be addressed in undertaking HRE at school and suggests ways of tackling them.
Examples of lesson plans appear as an annex to this paper. Use of the book The book was distributed to a number of educational institutions, teachers and individuals; Ministry of Education, municipal and provincial offices of education; libraries; UNESCO Associated Schools; and educational institutes. It was also given to teachers who participated in the Training Programme in Education for International Understanding in 1998. However, because of limited funds, only 1,000 copies were printed, not even enough to supply all lower-secondary schools. The book is used by future teachers at teacher education colleges and universities to prepare their lesson plans and to plan activities for students such as discussions, role play, etc. A current problem in school is bullying. The book provides ways of dealing with it by teaching children cooperation, sensitivity to other people's feelings, peaceful resolution of conflicts, etc. At the National Training Workshop for Moral Education Teachers in August 1998, the book was well received by about a hundred teacher participants, who tried out the activities suggested in the book after they returned to their schools. The book was featured in a five-page article in a popular local educational monthly, Uri Kyoyuk (Our Education), in November 1998. The project was also introduced at the National Conference on Human Rights held in Seoul, November 1998, in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Paik Young-ae, who wrote the chapter on Moral Education, used the book in her classes. In November 1998, the Educational Broadcasting System filmed her using the book in classes and broadcast the program nationwide. The author of the chapter on Social Studies brought the book to the National Seminar for Social Studies Teachers, meetings of the Social Studies Teachers in Pusan, etc. She won second prize at the National Contest for Teachers in Education through the Use of Newspapers, organized in 1998 by the Choongang Daily News, an influential national newspaper. Education through the use of newspapers is gaining popularity in Korea. The chapter of the Grade 9 Social Studies Textbook on the Rule of Law, which touches on human rights, is boring. But by leading students through the exciting activities described in the HRE book, which includes studying cases of human rights violations in daily life, teachers are able to interest students in the official textbooks.
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Annex 1 Sample Lesson Plans Moral Education Title: Helen Keller (page 63, Grade 9 Moral Education Textbook) Related rights: Rights of the handicapped Theme: To think about Helen Keller's life and its meaning Objectives:
Methods: lecture, discussion, presentation and role play Lesson plan
Finalization A handicapped student is invited to tell his/her experiences. Teacher summarizes the class discussion and mentions briefly a plan for the next class.
Annex 2
Promoting Human Rights Education in Hong Kong Secondary Schools Angela Lee and Mary Yuen Before 1997, the Hong Kong colonial government deliberately downplayed political affairs and civic education, which led to the public's political apathy and lack of human rights awareness. However, as the handover approached and Sino-British talks on Hong Kong's future intensified, more people became concerned about social and political affairs. The June 4 Tiananmen Massacre shocked the people of Hong Kong, triggering concern over China's human rights situation as well as human rights protection in Hong Kong after 1997. Although many people are more aware of human rights issues now, they still have misconceptions about them. Even though Britain is a signatory of the two international human rights covenants, a domestic human rights law did not exist in Hong Kong until 1991. There was no formal human rights education (HRE) in schools. Reasons to Promote HRE The Justice and Peace Commission of the Hong Kong Catholic Diocese (HKJP) and Amnesty International Hong Kong Section (AIHK) are trying to set up a mechanism to protect human rights and promote human rights consciousness. They cooperate with other NGOs in urging the government to uphold human rights and in exposing injustice and violations of human rights. They believe that education is important in order to accomplish their goal. People need to understand their basic rights, to know when their rights are being violated and to respect the rights of others, especially minorities, so as to prevent discrimination. Thus, a human rights culture has to be cultivated through different kinds of education or consciousness-raising programs. In short, HRE aims to create awareness of international human rights standards and to implement these standards. In the early 1990s, the HKJP started to organize human rights activities and carry out HRE in schools, churches and the community, supervised by its human rights committee. At the same time, AI increased its global efforts to promote HRE. Its aim is to spread information about human rights, to create a climate of opinion promoting respect for human rights, and to defend those rights. Its ultimate goal is to encourage ordinary citizens and government leaders, groups and institutions to safeguard human rights everywhere. AIHK has been part of AI's Teaching for Freedom HRE program since 1995. Importance of Promoting Human Rights in Schools Young people are the main target of human rights awareness programs as they accept new ideas and values more readily than their elders. They are also more easily reached than other groups through, for example, existing civic and moral education in schools. Promoting HRE in Schools General program and activities The AIHK and HKJP promote HRE in various ways, sometimes in cooperation with other NGOs. Listed below are their activities, publications and programs in the past few years:
Armed with the results of the survey, the AIHK lobbied the Department of Education to increase government support for HRE development and to designate HRE as a separate subject. In 1996, Oxfam Hong Kong and AIHK surveyed secondary school teachers' and student teachers' conception of human rights and global values. The survey showed that while teachers and students generally understood human rights, many teachers valued social stability over people's fundamental rights. And while teachers believed in basic human rights for everyone, most placed their personal interests above other people's rights. This is of some concern since teachers play an important role in developing young people's human rights values. The AIHK lobbied the Hong Kong Institute of Education (a teacher training institute) and the Hong Kong Department of Education to provide HRE in-service training for teachers and to increase HRE in teacher professional training. Specific Activity Experience A Catholic secondary school invited the HKJP to design a four-lesson human rights course for senior form students, which was used for moral and religious lessons. Topics included basic human rights, anti-discrimination, gender equality and freedom of speech and expression. Each lesson spanned two periods or approximately 70 minutes. We used the course in two other Catholic schools from September 1998 to January 1999. Of the three schools, two grouped students from two classes, reaching about 60 students. The third school held classes of about 30 students each. Facilitators came from among the schoolteachers and HKJP staff. The course has since been introduced to other schools. Methodologies. Teachers used an interactive method employing various activities rather than the traditional one-way teaching method. Activities included debates, watching videos, case studies, role-playing, small-group discussions, etc. They aimed to
Small-group discussions used local case studies to raise participants' awareness of current affairs and the local human rights situation. (See Annex 1 for details of the teaching plan.) Role of teachers. Since the course was
student-oriented, teachers acted as stimulators and facilitators. They prodded students to
discuss the issues, answered students' questions, supplied information after small-group
discussions and exhorted students to live out the spirit of human rights. Teaching for freedom-AIHK's HRE camp In 1996, the AIHK organized the Teaching for Freedom-HRE Camp, which is based on the belief that student teacher training should touch on all aspects of life-including human rights-not just "academic subjects." The camp also encouraged participants to think critically and creatively about human rights issues relevant to them as individuals and as future teachers. (See Annex 2.) Camp programs Introduction Workshops * Introduction of the Universal Declaration
on Human Rights (UDHR) *Respecting , Protecting and Promoting Human
Rights * Freedom of Expression Lectures Given by Guest Speakers * The History of Human Rights: Identifying
Common Themes in the International Documents * School Life, Educational Attitudes and
Human Rights * Drama-Participatory Theater as an HRE Tool Use of Media Education Materials (photos, videos and newspaper clippings) Videos shown to participants were on the UDHR, street children in Mongolia (children's rights), human rights and school regulations, Band-5 schools (labeling, discrimination), Vietnamese boat people (discrimination), and the death penalty (The Next Step). Participants analyzed a selection of newspaper clippings and discussed issues of freedom of expression. Summary of the Three-day Training Program Most participants agreed that human rights are fundamental to every person. Most learned to become more tolerant of other people's views. Influencing Policy The AIHK and HKJP also worked with other concerned groups in examining the structural, legal and policy aspects of civic education, including HRE. We attempted to shape civic education policy by
Achievements and Problems Achievements Some schools hold HRE programs once a year, during, for example, Human Rights Week, featuring exhibitions, debates and lectures. The increase in schools' requests for human rights information and lectures proves that NGOs' HRE work is becoming respectable. Schools have reacted favorably to all the HRE materials. NGOs lobbied the Department of Education to review the old Guidelines of Civic Education in Schools, which was published in 1995. In 1996, the department published new guidelines. In 1996-1997, NGOs also lobbied the department to make civic education an independent subject. In September 1998, civic education was established as an independent subject in junior secondary schools (forms 1-3). Problems The main problem faced by AIHK and HKJP is that human rights are not part of Hong Kong's culture or values system. Minority rights (for example, of the elderly, single parents, homeless people, new immigrants, gay and lesbian groups, etc.), especially, receive little support from the general public. The curriculum, classroom setting and teaching approaches all pose obstacles to implementing HRE. The curriculum stresses knowledge-centered education, which is very different from the interactive approach, which allows students to participate and stimulates them to think critically and analytically. Teachers find it difficult to organize small-group discussions when class size is normally around 35-40 students. They cannot be effective stimulators and facilitators when the student/teacher ratio is that high. Even when teachers are keen on having an HRE program at their school, few receive encouragement or support from the school administration, principal and other teachers. The lack of HRE resources and professional HRE teachers' training also needs to be addressed, especially since human rights are not part of the culture and because the HRE teaching methodology is so different from traditional methods. HRE is still not compulsory at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. As HRE is not yet a core subject in most schools, textbook publishers do not want to invest money in it. Although NGOs have developed educational teaching materials, they are hindered by their limited resources from doing more. Reflections and Reviews Working with schools A reason schools hesitate to carry out HRE is that the principals and teachers are afraid of losing control over their students. Some think that HRE is solely about rights and that students will ignore their responsibilities and even challenge teachers and school policy. Others feel that human rights are politically sensitive and irrelevant to daily life, and that advocating human rights means protesting against the government. While it is true that HRE emphasizes individual and political rights, it does more than that. It also stresses the basic principle that everyone is equal, that other people's rights should be respected and that one cannot infringe on another's rights. Human rights are also social and economic rights, which are relevant to the people's living standard. While it is undeniably true that human rights activists challenge the government, they do so in order to point out injustices. We must make this clear to teachers and principals. Methodology and teachers' training HRE stresses group dynamics and interaction between teachers and students and among students themselves, and encourages students to think critically, to raise questions during discussions and even to challenge school policies that violate human rights. However, teachers receive traditional training, which does not touch on human rights. Teachers may therefore not have the confidence to handle HRE. Teacher training and educational kits are thus important. Teachers can also teach themselves and pay more attention to current affairs. In our experience, some teachers manage the activities very well and involve students in the activities. Environmental factor Students have to take action and live out the human rights spirit in school and in daily life, not just in the classroom. But the school must create a democratic and human-rights-friendly environment by, for example, creating channels for students to express their opinions on teaching methods, school policy and student activities, and by encouraging students to organize a student union and student activities. The school itself should aim for holistic education. Teachers should encourage students to pay more attention to social affairs and to express their opinions through proper channels. Human rights should be promoted not only in schools, but also through family education and mass education at the community level. NGOs must therefore continue to urge the government to provide more resources in civic education. Civic education policy Many of the abovementioned problems are related to education and teacher-training policies. NGOs must continue to be concerned about HRE at the policy level and to build up more communication channels with the education institute. HRE in Hong Kong is a recent development.
Government support, however, is not enough, and there is much room for improvement. The
teachers we met feel that it is easier for the new generation of teachers to accept and
teach human rights in schools. Indeed, many teachers do add human rights to their syllabus
and use various methods to bring the message to their students. The teaching plan of the four-lesson human rights course in schools Lesson 1: Human Rights Concept Aim: Targets: Form 6 and 7 students Time: 70 minutes Teaching tools: Procedure:
"Teaching for Freedom" Date of the Function: 18-21 July 1996 (4 days and
3 nights) Training of student teachers should be broad in range and not limited to academic subjects. The future educators of our children need to understand modern-day issues that affect our lives, such as human rights. An aim of the Teaching for Freedom-HRE Camp is to introduce and improve knowledge of human rights, and to develop student teachers' understanding, attitudes and ability to use critical judgment and creative thinking regarding human rights issues. Other aims * Introduce "how to teach human rights"; learn to develop teaching skills; and learn to use teaching material kits supplied by the Committee on the Promotion of Civic Education, Amnesty International and other NGOs. * Implement the Education Department's Guidelines on Civic Education in Schools. Improve on education in 10 years. Details * Publicity poster and application form to be
sent to all universities, colleges and the Hong Kong Institute of Education.
Human Rights Education
Camp Thursday, 18 July 1996 14:30 - 15:30 Registration and Check-in (Shaw College) 16:00 - 16:30 Introduction of the Participants (Shaw College - Rm. 2)
16:30 - 18:00 Workshop on the Right to Education: Identifying Common Themes across the International Documents
18:30 Dinner (Shaw College) 20:00 - 22:00 Human Rights Game
Video Show
Friday, 19 July 1996 08:30 Breakfast (Shaw College) 09:30 - 11:30 Workshop: Respecting, Protecting and Promoting Human Rights
12:30 Lunch (Shaw College) 14:00 - 17:00 Workshop on Freedom of Expression
18:30 Dinner (Shaw College) 20:00 - 22:00 The History of Human Rights
Saturday, 20 July 1996 08:30 Breakfast (Shaw College) 09:30 - 12:00 School Life, Educational Attitude and Human Rights
12:30 Lunch (Shaw College) 14:00 - 17:00 Intercultural Workshop: Using Drama
18:30 Dinner (Shaw College) After Dinner Free 08:30 Breakfast (Shaw College) 09:30 - 11:30 Talents Show by Participants
12:00 Check-out 12:30 Lunch (Shaw College)
Human Rights Education in Hong Kong Grace Tsui
HRE in English Language Teaching I teach English language at a prevocational school. As far as I can see, most of the English language teachers in Hong Kong prefer to focus on the various language skills. They pay little attention to the substantive content in the teaching materials they use, least of all the concept of human rights. This is quite understandable, and may be related to the following perceptions among English language teachers.
Nevertheless, probably without knowing it, many English language teachers have touched on human rights in the course of covering their teaching materials. I took a casual look at the textbooks used at my school and found quite a few examples of such teaching materials, including a Secondary Two text titled "Youth Talks: School Uniforms," a Secondary Three text titled "A Special Olympics" and a Secondary Five text titled "UNICEF." The substantive content of these texts is, in one way or another, related to certain people's rights. It seems to me that it would not be difficult to link these specific rights to the more general concept of human rights. HRE in Teachers' Professional Development I am the chairperson of the Secondary School English Teachers Association in Hong Kong. Last year, I organized a series of seminars and visits to NGOs under the heading of "English as a World Language." One of the seminar topics was "Exploring Human Rights," and the activity included a visit to the Amnesty International (AI) offices in Hong Kong. From among the 500 or so secondary schools in Hong Kong, only 10 teachers joined the activity. My understanding was that quite a few teachers were worried that AI might be related to activities that might be deemed too politically sensitive, especially since Hong Kong has just been returned from Britain to China. Nevertheless, the teachers who did take part in the activity took advantage of the occasion to explore the concept of human rights and AI's role in it, and they all felt that the activity was a valuable one for them. HRE in School Discipline My school is for children who are identified in the Hong Kong education system as academically low achievers. As a discipline teacher in this school, I often find myself having to deal with dilemmas related to the concept of human rights. Take a very simple example. A female pupil is found to be wearing a skirt that is shorter than permitted by our school regulations. The usual practice in our schools is to make her let down the hemline immediately. However, the pupil usually feels that this is a serious infringement of her personal rights. Also, the pupil usually refuses outright to cooperate, causing more serious conflict. What I usually do is ease the situation by borrowing a spare school uniform from the school office to make the pupil feel that teachers are willing to help her comply with school regulations and are not there to catch her breaking school regulations in order to punish her. HRE in Extracurricular Activities I often find it much easier to practice HRE in extracurricular activities. As a girl-guide leader, I arrange for a number of girl guides to participate in various community service activities to help people in need, including the elderly and new immigrants from China mainland. Through such activities, they develop an awareness of the need to respect the rights of people in the community who are relatively deprived and the need to help them obtain what they are entitled to as members of the community. I feel that, through these activities, I can instill the concept of human rights without even mentioning the term. Soon, I will be taking these girl guides through a six-year program called the "World Citizenship Scheme." The program covers a wide range of issues, including peace, culture, environment, education, health, food and nutrition, and ancient heritage. I can see plenty of opportunities to introduce the concept of human rights through activities related to these issues, again, probably without necessarily mentioning the term human rights itself. Conclusion I can see that in Hong Kong, HRE also takes place in a range of semi-governmental activities such as those organized by the Equal Opportunities Commission, the Office of the Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data, the Independent Police Complaints Council, and many others. To conclude, let me relate a personal experience on a Hong Kong street recently. I was stopped by a volunteer raising funds for Greenpeace. I do support Greenpeace environmental protection work, and I did want very much to donate some money. However, the volunteer asked me to sign a form to transfer a fixed amount of money from my bank account every month, and he said that this was the only way to donate. I was in a kind of dilemma. Eventually, I refused to sign the form. Somehow I felt that I was exercising my right to choose as a person, even though it was not an entirely happy choice. I can see that many people in Hong Kong share this sort of personal feeling and exercise this sort of choice as well. The notion of human rights did not come up at that time. Nevertheless, I feel that it is connected to the spread of human rights awareness in Hong Kong. ---oOo---
Zendokyo and Other Groups: Teachers' Commitment to Dowa Education* Ichiro Akashi Japan's defeat in World War II began the country's march toward democracy. The 1947 Fundamental Law on Education laid the foundation for postwar education for democracy. Buraku discrimination survived the war and was symbolized by the poor school enrollment rate of Buraku children. For instance, in the early 1950s in Nara, the ratio of long-time absentees in junior high schools (those who never attended classes at the start of school year) was 35 percent compared to 2.7 percent for non-Buraku students. Buraku children were counted on to help their family and often not sent to school because of the dire poverty which was a result of discrimination. Most educators, however, perceived it as the result of Buraku parents' lack of understanding of the importance of education or the children's lack of motivation to study. Most schools made no serious efforts to promote Dowa education. Discrimination was widespread. In 1948, in Kochi Prefecture, a small number of so-called fukushi kyoin (welfare teachers) began to try to solve the low enrollment problem by visiting Buraku homes and advising Buraku parents. They were the harbingers of Dowa educators; they listened to the voices of Buraku parents and heard the hidden messages therein. They reflected on the meaning of education and emphasized the need to learn from the reality of Buraku discrimination. Buraku Demand for Government Measures All Romance Struggle In 1951, a magazine named All Romance carried a short story titled "Tokushu Buraku" (Special Hamlet) written by a staff member of the hygiene section of the Kyoto municipal government. It portrayed a Buraku community, using its real name, as full of crime, violence and squalor. The Buraku movement harshly criticized the Kyoto municipal government for failing to help the Buraku community, and took the publisher to task. The denunciation revealed that Buraku communities in Kyoto suffered greatly from poor housing; lack of a fire fighting system, sewage and waterworks; and a low school enrollment. This so-called "All Romance Struggle" became a model for a number of subsequent struggles against other local governments. The Yoshiwa Junior High School Incident In June 1952, a social studies teacher, in discussing the "four class plus outcaste" system in the Edo era, stated that the ancestors of the outcastes had been slaves or foreigners in the Heian era (794-1191) and that they were called yotsu (four-legged) or eta (filth). He then wrote down these epithets and asked students to raise their hands if they knew them. Most students immediately looked at a Buraku student in the class who felt he was being targeted. Buraku parents, hearing about this incident, declared that they would no longer send the children to the school because "Our children do not go to school to be discriminated against. We will not entrust our children to the care of this school and its teachers."
Supply of Free Textbooks Since 1963, textbooks have been supplied free of charge to elementary and lower-secondary students in Japan as part of the compulsory education system, in accordance with Article 26 of the Constitution. It should be noted that the struggles of Buraku parents and children brought this about. By the latter half of the 1950s, most Buraku children were enrolled in schools. Many, however, could not afford school textbooks or stationery. The struggle for free textbooks developed in Buraku communities in Osaka, Nara, Kyoto and Kochi prefectures. For instance, in 1962, in Gose City (Nara prefecture), Buraku children went to school without textbooks and demanded that textbooks be supplied free to all in accordance with the Constitution. In response, the local school board promised to request for a special budget so it could supply free textbooks starting in the second trimester. The demand for free textbooks, first voiced by Buraku communities, expanded nationwide and finally led the government to acquiesce in 1963. The Founding of Zendokyo and the Evolution of Dowa Education The Birth of Zendokyo The Zendokyo or the National Federation of Dowa Educators' Associations was founded on 6 May 1953. Its was strongly supported by the Buraku liberation movement. The history of Zendokyo is also the history of postwar Dowa education. Dowa education already existed in several prefectures, but there was no supporting national organization before Zendokyo. Representatives of Dowa educators in nine prefectures (Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Wakayama, Nara, Shiga, Okayama, Tokushima and Kochi) and two cities (Kyoto and Osaka), all in western Japan and mostly in the Kansai region, gathered at its founding assembly. Zendokyo led a broad, mass-based education reform movement, focusing on how the schools could help children, parents and the Buraku community fight discrimination. It accommodated diverse ideological viewpoints and political positions. Expansion of Dowa Education Nationwide At the same time, local governments began to issue guidelines and provide materials for Dowa education as follows:
When the Dowa Policy Council's Recommendation was issued in 1965 and the Law on Special Measures for Dowa Projects enacted in 1969, Dowa education rapidly expanded in scale and scope, and Dowa educators' associations were formed in other prefectures. Thirteen were established and joined Zendokyo in 1966; now there are Zendokyo chapters in 31 prefectures and 3 cities. For the past several years, more than 20,000 participants have gathered at Zendokyo's annual convention. This is the largest education-related gathering in Japan. However, Dowa education practices in western Japan are still central to Zendokyo activities. They must be expanded nationally. Postwar Dowa Education The major developments in Dowa education for each postwar decade can be summarized as follows:
Lessons from Discrimination Zendokyo has consistently believed that it should learn from the reality of discrimination and build educational practices that will assure a better life and future for all Japanese children. "Learn from the reality of discrimination" has come to guide all Dowa educators. But what does it actually mean? We cannot eradicate discrimination just by preaching that "discrimination is wrong." It is not enough for students to learn about Buraku issues. It is vital that they experience discrimination themselves in order to deepen their own understanding of it; they ultimately benefit, as they will acquire a broad perspective of humanity, open and less prejudiced attitudes, capacity to empathize with others, and self-identity. People usually think Buraku issues are limited to discrimination in marriage and employment. However, discrimination exists everywhere. The slogan "learn from the reality of discrimination" has encouraged educators to reflect on their own personal values and attitudes. When students consider the suffering, resilience and generosity of the Buraku, when they read or hear about the experiences of the Buraku, they may become sensitive to other people's feelings. In a nutshell, to "learn from the reality of discrimination" is to recognize one's relation to discrimination and to transform one's self. Results of the Dowa Education Movement Dowa educators have become keenly aware of discrimination in education by visiting Buraku communities and listening to the Buraku's aspirations for a life free from discrimination. Through close collaboration between the home, the community and the school, Dowa education has become a community-based educational reform initiative. The Dowa education movement addresses the need to improve educational facilities such as school buildings and the community youth centers, to provide scholarships for Buraku children, and to assign more teachers to schools. It has also developed learning materials featuring Buraku community life and labor. By organizing compensatory education classes and Buraku children's community activities, Dowa educators strive to improve Buraku children's academic performance. Dowa educators know through decades of experience that strengthening community-school ties and relating learning activities in school to real life are vitally important to children's ability to learn. The Convention on the Rights of the Child was ratified in Japan in 1994, and the five-days-a-week school system was started on a bimonthly basis in April 1995. More educational reforms and curriculum development efforts are needed to meet the demands of the new situation. The Place of Dowa Education in Japanese Schools Goals of Dowa Education Dowa education is not a special form of education. It refers to all kinds of educational activities that aim to eradicate all forms of discrimination. It has the following goals:
Dowa educat |
