Electronic Resource Centre for Human Rights Education:
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Shin-ichi Hayashi
The Osaka Prefectural Senior High School Dowa (Human Rights) Education Research Association has three organs: the Board of Directors, made up of the principals and a few teachers of some senior high schools in Osaka, Japan; the Management Committee, which consists of senior high school teachers; and the Secretariat. The Secretariat personnel are appointed and paid by the Osaka Board of Education and consist of several teachers (officially known as advisory teachers on Dowa education), many of whom work at the office full-time and not at their schools. Although the Board of Directors supervises the general policy of our association, it does not manage our specific research activities. Management is the work of the Management Committee and the Secretariat. Our association is neither a non-governmental nor a local-government organization. Rather, it has characteristics of both types of organization, of which it tries to make the best use. It fosters cooperation between highly motivated teachers and other teachers, between teachers and the Board of Education, between teachers and principals, and between teachers and various human rights movements. Our association was founded in 1967. Its aim is to study and develop Dowa education in prefectural senior high schools in Osaka. It consists of five sections and four task-force groups. Section 1 consists of the principals. The other four sections consist of teachers and are concerned with teaching methodologies, student voluntary activities, course guidance and job training, and teacher training. The task-force groups study issues relating to part-time and night schools, disabled students, multicultural education and women's liberation. Teachers share their experiences and teaching methods. Some take part in task-force groups and specialize in the above-mentioned issues. Meetings of the sections and groups are held once a month. All public senior high schools, about 200 schools, have joined our association. Our activities are subsidized by the Board of Education and membership fees. Three Factors that Promoted Dowa Education Many factors influenced teachers and helped develop Dowa education, three of which are the most significant. The first is the combination of Japan's defeat in World War II, the consequent democratic reform of the education system, and the adoption of the present Constitution. The second includes the beginning of the Cold War, preparation for economic recovery, and Japan's joining the Western bloc. The third is high-growth economic development. Backed by the Constitution, which states that sovereignty rests with the people, teachers moved to make education democratic and progressive.[1] Many began to teach the principles of democracy to their students and denounced what had been accepted as "truth" before the war. They were the first generation who carried out Dowa education. The beginning of the Cold War prepared the base for Japanese economic development. The Education Board's public election system was changed into the appointment system. Japan's alignment with the Western bloc shattered Japan's war-time image. And the economic depression spurred the government to strengthen its control over the teachers and education. The government tried to introduce an oppressive efficiency rate system. Teachers were forced to use only government-authorized textbooks. The government also tried to rekindle Japanese nationalism and forced the people to worship the flag and to sing "The Reign of the Emperor." Social movements, including the Buraku liberation movement, protested against the government's actions, building up strong cooperative relations with each other in the process. The Japanese economy enjoyed high growth in the 1960s, but Buraku communities remained devastated, with cases of discrimination against Buraku reported all over the country. Some teachers recognized some important positive features of the Buraku culture, such as the spirit of cooperation, which they cited to criticize the selfishness fostered by Japan's high-growth economic policy. The government enacted the Law for Special Measures for Dowa Projects, which became the base to start human rights education, including Dowa education. The History of Our Association The first period (1967-1971) Our association began as the student guidance section of the association of school principals. No teachers joined it. As the number of senior high schools increased, more students from Dowa districts entered them. As cases of Buraku discrimination increased, Buraku students began to protest and more teachers became aware of discrimination. It became necessary for not only principals but also teachers to eradicate discrimination. The second period (1972-1981) In 1972, our association was reorganized into its present form. It hoped that at least one teacher responsible for Dowa education in each senior high school (besides the principal) would become a member. At the beginning of this period, the association studied the following issues: delinquency and low academic achievement; disciplinary action; promotion of academic achievement; textbook content; course guidance after graduation; disabled students; PTA activities; promotion of student activities, including a club for eradicating Buraku discrimination. We edited and circulated our own newsletter. We conducted field work in Buraku districts. We held two-day research meetings during summer. At the end of this period, we held general research meetings and started a survey about students' awareness of human rights. These activities continue today. Cases of Buraku discrimination in marriage and employment were reported all over the country. Some young people, unable to marry because they were Buraku, committed suicide. Many enterprises and some universities bought "Buraku lists." It was undeniable that discrimination existed, that some people tried to profit from it, and that many were indifferent to it. Around 10 to 20 discrimination cases in senior high schools were reported every year to the Board of Education and our association, although it is certain that more cases went unreported. Discrimination came in the form of derogatory descriptions in textbooks and prejudice from teachers and students. More and more teachers recognized the importance of Dowa education. Some reflected on the aim of education and reassessed their standpoint as teachers. The number of senior high schools increased dramatically; 62 senior high schools were established from 1974 to 1983. In Osaka, 90 percent of junior high school graduates went on to senior high school. Many of the younger teachers taught at the new schools, including those established in response to demands of the Buraku liberation movement. These community-based senior high schools played an important role in developing Dowa education. Even some young teachers who had little interest in social issues realized the importance of Dowa education. Young teachers who taught at the new community-based and night schools attended by scores of Buraku students, many of whom had low grades or had to work during the day, were confronted with uncomfortable questions from their students. "Would you live in a Dowa community?" "Would you marry a Buraku?" The teachers also learned about the Dowa spirit of cooperation. Although students tended to compete with each other, some highly motivated Dowa students did not proceed to highly ranked schools, but entered the new community-based schools with their friends because they were established by citizens movements, which included their parents and relatives. Many young teachers began to think critically about their experiences. They did not regard delinquency and bad attitudes only as objects of disciplinary punishment. They tried to understand why they occurred. They frequently visited their students' homes and spoke with their students and their families. They revised their teaching materials and programs, and methods of student guidance. Our association was inspired by these experiences. We joined movements to ban discriminatory job application forms, which contained questions such as "What is your father's /mother's occupation?" "What is your family's income?" and "How large is your house?" We created new job application forms, which all companies now use. We also revised some criteria used by the Japan Scholarship Society (JSS), the national scholarship fund, which used to be the following:
We believed that this meant that national scholarships would be given only to healthy, excellent Japanese students. Contrary to the Constitution, the JSS did not think it had the duty to give all people in Japan a "cultural life." We removed criteria 2 and 3, and revised criterion 1. Many of the new senior high schools were plagued by serious delinquency, low academic achievement and a high dropout rate. The promoters of Dowa education made every effort to "learn deeply from the reality of discrimination and (to) build educational practices." The senior high schools established through the efforts of the Buraku liberation movement and promoters of Dowa education successfully coped with their problems. The third period (1982-1993) The international trend to promote human rights grew. Advocates of Dowa education began to share their experiences with people in other countries involved in human rights education. Our association established task-force groups concerned with textbooks, curriculum, foreigners in Japan, disabled students, survey of schools, and the academic achievement and consciousness of Buraku students. We recognized that students' concerns had changed. We also felt it necessary to reform the education system. The Research Group of Education for Foreigners in Japan task force and the Osaka Prefectural Senior High School Research Association for Foreigners in Japan were established in 1992. Although Dowa projects and some schools achieved marvelous results, Dowa education was not promoted in most schools or by most teachers. And the promoters of Dowa education had to tackle new tasks. Since I am not prepared to review those tasks, I can cite two experiences when I was teaching at a community-based senior high school. They hint at what we thought our next tasks would be. Case 1 A male student told another classmate that Dowa district "A" near his community was "dreadful." He did not know that his classmate was from A. She was shocked and asked "Why?" He answered, "My elder brother's cassette tapes were stolen from his car. He said the person who did it must have been someone either from our community or from A." The brothers lived in a low-income community. A few days later, the classmate said she was from A and that what the brothers had said was discriminatory. We teachers wanted him to share her shock. We wanted him to know how deeply she was shocked. We asked him, "You would also feel shocked if your community were disparaged in the same way, wouldn't you?" But he still couldn't understand her. So we analyzed the situation as follows. She was shocked not only because his statement betrayed his prejudice against her community, but more because she was sympathetic to the people in the Buraku liberation movement in her community. She was shocked because he and his brother didn't know that those people promoted human rights and because she was proud of those people, who included her family. The reason he could not understand her shock was that he had no sympathy for his own community. He never noticed his community's good points. So he had never tried to see the good in other communities. We believed that the more concern students had for their own communities, the more sympathy they would have for the Buraku liberation movement. And we became interested in promoting students' self-esteem. Case 2 More than 250 highly motivated second grade students prepared for field work in a Dowa community. It was a big event for both students and teachers. It was not part of their school work; it was planned and managed by the Buraku Liberation Research Club, a student group. The club members proudly explained the history of the Buraku liberation movement, giving examples of how it had shaped the idea of human rights. We believed all the students knew how important the field work was. The organizing students concluded by saying that they hoped many more students would join such democratic and progressive activities. We teachers believed that the field work fostered cooperation between the Buraku and other students. But we wondered if some of the students thought that while Buraku discrimination may have been harsh in olden times, it was almost eradicated now because the Dowa communities are physically the same as other communities. Field work was effective at a time when discrimination was so obvious and the Dowa communities so depressed. But times have changed. Discrimination in marriage and employment is not easily seen by going to a community. Now, it is necessary for students to be aware of human dignity. Only then will they understand how harsh discrimination still is. The Revision of Our Association and Some Present Tasks In 1994, we established a review committee to cope with some new tasks. We reorganized our research sections and task-force groups into their present form. We established the Research Section for Students' Voluntary Activities and the Research Group for Multicultural Education. One of the former's concerns is how students can develop and sustain their self-esteem and dignity. An interesting class activity is based on the "Trade Game" in which the participants deal with the North-South problem. It takes 50 minutes and proceeds as follows: Divide the students of a class into several groups. The members of each group play the role of villagers during the feudal era. They make a product with paper, scissors, color pencils and so on. The teacher plays the role of the village lord. He gives orders to some of the groups. The members of the groups getting orders rise up in discontent. The members of the other groups are surprised when they hear the first order. But they become indifferent to the next orders, which are given only to certain groups. The students of each side express how they felt during the activity and share their own experiences. This activity is not meant to explain the origins of Buraku discrimination. It aims to show how people can become indifferent to the oppressed and how they can feel angry about oppression. The Multicultural Education Research Group studies new methods developed in other countries such as multicultural education in the United States and NGO literacy projects in some Asian countries and adapts them to Japan. We also hold study meetings in each school district. (One school district has 15 to 20 schools.) We face other serious challenges. One is the economic depression aggravated by Osaka prefecture's excessive investment from the late 1980s to the beginning of the 1990s. The Board of Education subsidy was cut by 10 percent last year and by another 10 percent this year. Next year it may be cut by 30 percent. The cuts amount to 50 percent of the 1996 amount. Another problem is that some teachers try to hide or distort important facts of our history. They insist that if they do otherwise, they cannot cultivate young people's self-respect as the curriculum places too much emphasis on our country's bad points. We are strongly critical of this opinion. ---oOo--- End Notes [1]. Asking students to write about their lives was one method they used. It helped students see what forced them to live under bad conditions. Dowa education adopted this method after World War II. The establishment of schools for workers was another challenge taken up by democratic and progressive teachers. [2]. The following data is from the community-based Kunijima Senior High School. A good result is the sharp decrease in the number of disciplinary suspensions annually. Sharp Decrease in the Number of Disciplinary Suspension per Year
[3]. Our association joined the Human Rights Network established in 1992. This organization has organized study visits to the United States every year since 1993.
Human Rights Education and the Osaka City Education Board Yutaka Okazaki The Osaka City Education Board has officially offered human rights education (HRE) in the form of Dowa education since 1966. Although HRE activities existed before then, 1966 is regarded as a turning point in the city's history. A year before, the government's Dowa Policy Council had released its momentous report, which urged all Japanese to cooperate in solving the Dowa problem. The initial basic legislation for Osaka's HRE program was "The Fundamental Dowa Education Policy of Osaka City (1966)," which was adopted on the strength of the Dowa Policy Council report and policy and required Dowa issues to be taught at all levels in the city's schools. Previous polices and programs had helped solve some problems while leaving others extant. The present policy is aimed mainly at eradicating discrimination. It has two parts: one addresses discrimination, and the other promotes a just society through education. On the eve of the 21st century, Osaka is at another turning point. Inspired by the UN Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004), in March 1997, the Osaka City Education Board adopted a new policy guideline: "Principal Plan for Dowa Education," which explores new ways of conducting HRE. Previously special or provisional, HRE is now regular or permanent. From being focused on a particular group, it is now directed at all members of the community. Special Policies for Human Rights Several researches and academics have concluded that certain groups in Osaka, such as the Buraku, suffer low academic achievement, which is a typical result of discrimination. To solve the problem, the Osaka City Education Board adopted several policies, which can be categorized according to the issues they take up—academic, financial and curricular—and they are relevant to the educational system in general, not just to minorities: (1) Academic policies:
(2) Financial policies:
(3) Curricular policies:
These educational policies, especially (1) and (2), can be considered affirmative action measures. Textbook for Human Rights Education The Osaka City Education Board has been distributing a special textbook for HRE, Ningen (Human), since 1970. Given free to all students in Osaka City, it aims to teach children about the human rights system and the reality of human rights violations. The primary-school-level book (grade 6, second revision, version 3, 1995), for example, contains the following:
The book is used as a sub-textbook because HRE is not an official subject in schools. It is frequently used to teach moral education, which is an official subject. Like moral education, human rights literacy should not be limited to a particular subject, but should be promoted in all school activities. The textbook is not only about Buraku issues. It also includes broader human rights issues. Its main purpose is to teach all children about human rights and also empower minority children. Although it is not an official textbook, it is distributed to local education authorities in Nara, Hyogo, Hiroshima and Fukuoka prefectures. HRE is thus promoted not only by the central government but also by local authorities and people in the field. Teachers have conducted innumerable HRE activities, all of which constitute the real history of Japanese HRE. Teacher Training for HRE Teacher training for HRE in Osaka City officially started in 1993. Even before then, however, teachers already had many opportunities to learn about human rights outside the official teacher training program. In that year, the Osaka City Education Board integrated the training activities into one strand as "HRE training for teachers," making HRE a central topic.
The seminars guarantee that all teachers will be able to learn about HRE, and are the bases of HRE Osaka City schools. Teachers' Handbook for Human Rights Education in Practice In 1998, the Osaka City Education Board published the teachers' handbook on HRE in practice. It aims to promote HRE in all Osaka City schools. It was produced in line with the 1997 Plan of Action of the UN Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004). The contents are as follows:
This document's outstanding point is its explanation of "active learning." HRE has tended to be too moralistic and instructive. But this handbook promotes a more practical and scientific approach to HRE. Toward the 21st century, HRE will become more general and systematic. --oOo--
Human Rights Education in Taiwan: The Experience of the Workshops for Schoolteachers Mei-Ying Tang
Many see the idea of human rights as the cultural heritage -- even cultural imposition -- of Western societies and thus irrelevant to Chinese society. But the notion of human rights, in fact, builds on the idea of a shared humanity. Human rights are not derived from citizenship or nationality, but are the entitlement of every human being. In this sense, the concept of human rights is a universal and uniting idea. Despite the cultural relativism argument, the idea of human rights has been widely accepted along with the prosperity of democracy after World War II. Respect for human dignity and the principle of impartiality have become fundamental elements of democratic societies. Human rights education (HRE) is thus essential to preparing for participation in a pluralistic democracy. After martial law was abolished in 1987, Taiwan gradually became a democratic and liberal society. Although the transition period was chaotic, the idea of human rights is now accepted as fundamental and essential for the development of the whole society. In past decades, Taiwan has made great progress in the protection of human rights. Nevertheless, we must protect the root of human rights through education in order to nurture the fruits of today. Before martial law was abolished, few people were concerned about HRE. But in 1996, the Ministry of Education allowed private companies to publish textbooks, thus encouraging school reform toward a more open environment and a child-centered, participatory pedagogy. Human rights issues now receive more attention in the curriculum and the idea of human rights has been integrated into many subjects, extracurricular activities and the hidden curriculum. Most people, however, are not used to using "rights" language in their daily speech. Teachers therefore emphasize duties and social welfare over individual rights when teaching human-rights-related subjects such as social studies and citizenship education. Teachers and school administrators think students are too young to claim their rights and that teaching them their rights will make them "disobedient," threaten authority and cause chaos. Influenced by the worldwide support for the UN Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004), education authorities now realize the importance of HRE and support HRE initiatives in schools. School and curricular reforms are on the rise and more school activities cover issues such as racism, and sexual discrimination and abuse. Although these activities do not make up the whole of HRE, they do relate current issues to human rights. Nevertheless, human rights promotion in schools lags behind the democratic progress of Taiwanese society. Teachers need to understand human rights and they need access to teaching materials. Two years ago, my colleagues and I explored the possibility of introducing HRE in Chinese schools and started to develop curricula for students from pre-school to university. Our three-year research project has been sponsored by the National Science Council since 1996. Our pioneering team has four subgroups covering research topics for pre-school, primary school, secondary school and university levels. At the first stage, we reviewed the literature and discussed "Asian values" and the current school situation. Then we shaped the research framework. At the university level, the focus is on the basic survey of undergraduates' opinions and concepts of human rights. The other groups emphasize curriculum development. When we formed the research team, we expected to go beyond research: we wanted to advocate and implement human rights programs in schools. It is necessary to recruit teachers for curriculum development and to design an in-service program for them. The implementation of an HRE program is a major theme in educational reform. The core concepts of human rights are part of the integrated curriculum of social studies and will be included in the new national curriculum statement for all fields of study in 2001. The mayor of Taipei last year announced 1997-1998 as the "Year of Human Rights" to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Although it was a politically sensitive move, it eased the growth and development of HRE efforts. Our proposal for curriculum development and teacher training is supported and funded by the Bureau of Education of Taipei. The workshop for teachers was the first step to implement the HRE program. I first discuss the background of the HRE program and then the current curriculum on human rights. I focus on the shared experiences in the teachers' workshop. Finally, I cite problems and concerns in order to make improvements in the future. Basic Description of HRE in the School Curriculum There is no single subject called HRE. However, it is integrated into social studies, citizenship education and moral education. Some hidden curriculum and extracurricular activities also touch on the themes of self-esteem and respect for human dignity, which are the spirit of human rights. Although the teaching of human rights is important, it is unnecessary to specify HRE as a course because it should not be taught merely as a subject. Instead, it should lead to an understanding of and sympathy for the concepts of justice, equality, dignity, rights and democracy. Such understanding should include both affective and cognitive domains. Thus, schools should provide all kinds of opportunities for students to experience affective support for learning and to express their feelings through drama, art, music, creative writing and other media (Council of Europe, 1985). Partly due to the authorities' fear of too many rights for students, the school curriculum stresses the notion of responsibilities. And partly because of the culture of competitive examinations, the cognitive domain is stressed as the essential part of all subjects. Thus the human-rights-related curriculum and activities have not offered enough opportunities for students to enjoy human rights in real life. To some extent, teachers and students understand and accept the values of human dignity, especially when related to respect for the old and protection of the weak. However, there is a need to broaden the students' experience and link those traditions with the idea of human rights. It is necessary to clarify the meaning of human rights and to base the culture of human rights on the values of human dignity. Legal documents and universal statements on human rights, and the theory and history of human rights must be emphasized in the school curriculum. Human rights concepts must not only be taught, but also practiced and applied in the school and community. Through daily practice, the culture of human rights will take root and become part of our life. For the past two years, the research team, through group discussions and class observations, has explored a number of issues related to the implementation of HRE at different grade levels. We have examined HRE, its purpose, content and principles of implementation. We hope that teachers will come to understand the assumptions and implications of human rights and thus resolve their own doubts regarding HRE. Using our research findings and other countries' experiences, we are exerting great efforts to develop curriculum and teaching materials such as leaflets, comics, worksheets and even electronic books. The research is based on the premise that real learning occurs when there is a combination of the cognitive, the affective and the active. The HRE curriculum will be divided into two parts but will eventually be integrated into a whole combining thinking, feeling and doing together. We seek to promote a set of core values derived from the fundamental central value of human dignity. HRE is a process of cultivation by which students learn and practice the core values of human rights. This is what we call the culture of human rights. Through case studies of daily-life conflicts and group activities of sharing and cooperation, students will experience and explore the meaning of democracy, social justice and respect for human rights. The culture of human rights is cultivated by an ongoing process in daily life that challenges and reconstructs values and beliefs. It is important for students to learn a set of values that will help them identify problems such as racism, sexism and other denials of the values that comprise and sustain human dignity. The other part of the HRE curriculum includes the history of human rights, legal documents and statements on human rights, and basic human rights theory. The intention is not to train students to become experts, but rather to enable them to develop and think about and act on their relationships with others. The content of human rights is not only concerned with knowledge of the great documents and theory of human rights but also with everyday life in and outside the school. It is essential to relate the abstract statements in legal instruments to children's school life so that they will better understand their own and others' rights. It is therefore essential to provide a school environment respectful of human rights and to allow students to learn, practice and apply human rights principles in the school setting. After all, action is an important element in HRE and it makes human rights more meaningful to students. In sum, the framework of the HRE curriculum includes the culture and content of human rights. In order to develop appropriate materials and activities, the teachers themselves must have a concrete idea of human rights. We must therefore develop training programs for teachers and a curriculum as the first step to implement HRE. The Workshop for Teachers Since effective HRE requires committed and skilled teachers, it is crucial to make them sensitive to and capable of dealing with human rights issues in daily life, especially in the school setting. Teacher training should thus strive for this goal or at least develop an awareness of human rights issues and standards among teachers. The workshop is designed to achieve this goal by creating a support group and a sense of teamwork among teachers. It is hoped that the teachers will develop professionally and devote themselves to HRE through this ongoing process. Teachers are responsible for transmitting values, which are essential for teaching human rights. They need to be in a position to help their students support pluralist democracy and human rights, enjoy cultural diversity and be conscious of their responsibilities to the planet and all those who live on it. This implies that they themselves should share these values. Therefore, the workshop participants, recruited on voluntary basis, must develop shared values and reflect on the theory and practice of human rights. In fact, our goal of including human rights curricula in schools and training teachers is closely related to citizenship education that develops both awareness and advocacy. The Workshop Program The idea of the teacher training workshop was born in December 1997. The workshop was supported and funded by the Taipei Bureau of Education. Before the workshop, we held a seminar on HRE in January 1998. Then we recruited about 30 primary and secondary schoolteachers on a voluntary basis or upon recommendation of school principals. We respect free choice because the workshop will not succeed if participants are forced to attend. We believe HRE should include not only knowledge but also feeling and action. Through this process, teachers will experience the culture of human rights for themselves and thus learn to respect students' choices. The eight-session workshop has two targets. One is to explore the concept of human rights and the implication of HRE, and the other is to develop teaching materials and resources. The program is thus designed to provide teachers with legal knowledge about human rights and an opportunity to explore appropriate materials and methodologies for effective teaching and learning. Participants usually meet every second Friday afternoon during the second term of the school year. The outline of the program is as follows. Program of the workshop on HRE
The first three sessions of the workshop provide basic information on human rights theory, especially in relation to the Constitution. The following two sessions expose participants to the basic international and national documents on human rights. In the final three sessions, participants review the offered curricula and extract ideas that will enable them to develop similar learning experiences in schools. The program is run democratically and participants have maximum control over the tasks, especially curriculum development. However, as program leaders, we are responsible for devising and sequencing the activities and setting the framework of HRE curricula. We adopt an approach that includes participant-led activities and small-group discussions, permitting maximum participation and encouraging cooperation, tolerance, decision making and commitment. We stress our belief that education for human rights and democracy cannot take place where there is no democracy or respect for the human rights of both students and teachers. In summary, our workshop provides a framework within which all have access to information and the opportunity to participate in activities. Teachers share and benefit from each other's personal and professional experience. They also contribute directly to HRE through the curriculum development project. Summer Workshop As stated above, the 1998 workshop had two purposes, neither of which were easy to achieve in a short time. To some extent, teachers have accepted the idea of human rights and are ready to apply it in the school setting. However, the teaching materials and resources they developed need to be refined before being published and distributed to every school in Taipei. We thus set up the summer workshop for the teachers who enjoyed the last workshop and are willing to contribute to the development of curricula. The summer workshop is task-oriented and has six intensive sessions. Although less than 15 persons took part last term, they produced highly creative materials. They examined existing textbooks related to human rights themes and incorporated human rights concepts into different school subjects. Divided into four groups, these volunteers met every Friday morning from 10 July to 14 August 1998. One group, stressing the content of HRE, will simplify international documents, mainly the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, so that students can easily understand them. The group will also write stories about persons and events important in the history of human rights, especially in Taiwan. Three groups, one of secondary school teachers and the other two of primary school teachers, focus on the cultivation of a human rights culture. They will develop materials and activities from case studies drawn from their observations of students' experience in schools. The assumption of curriculum development is that the culture and the content of human rights can be learned through personal experience and interaction with others. All the groups will then identify the knowledge, attitudes and activities required to structure learning about democracy, justice and equality, responsibility and human dignity. The summer workshop program is continually being revised and developed to meet the needs of participants and to accomplish the target of curriculum development. As a result, teachers will apply what they learned from the workshop to their professional work through research and reflection. In fact, the impact of the workshop is greatly increased when the goal is to develop curricula. Reflections and Insights In the workshop, we intend to integrate into the curriculum framework cognitive, affective and active domains. The structure of the workshop is important, as is the quality of HRE practice in schools. However, the workshop is unique in that we make the human rights element explicit in the conduct and process of the workshop. The workshop also leaves teachers plenty of time to express their ideas and feelings and then develop their own teaching materials. According to a survey after the workshop, teachers responded that they had become more aware of and sensitive to human rights issues in and outside school. They said they would reflect on and criticize teaching methods, school curricula and environments that oppress students' rights. Of course, some participants still have doubts about implementing HRE programs, but they appreciate the chance to attend the workshop. Generally, teachers are willing to explore HRE further. The feedback from other workshops encourages us to consider developing a pre-service and in-service teacher training model. Problems and Concerns in Implementing HRE Program HRE is not just a school subject but also a value-based process. It should be integrated into other subjects and provide an environment of justice, equality and human dignity. In Taiwan, many activities and school subjects are related to civics and moral education, but few are concerned with HRE. Lots of work have to be done, such as curriculum development, teacher training, school improvement and even education reform. We intend to set up the workshop for teachers, whose dual purposes are teacher training and curriculum development, as the first step to advocate and implement an HRE program. In spite of the sense of common purpose achieved, many questions remain. Cultural values, for example, must be clarified. There is still a debate on the issue of whether human rights are universal. HRE is a normative field of study seeking to define and apply standards of justice to human affairs. The fundamental values of human rights are claimed to be universal; however, there is a need to clarify the conflict between cultural values and the core values of human rights. It is hoped that this process of clarification will develop through teaching and curriculum development. Nevertheless, it is essential to continuously study the development of HRE and examine the impact of implementing HRE on teachers and students. Workshop participants also identify and discuss common problems, including the lack of time devoted to this area and its status in the integrated curriculum. Other common constraints are the lack of flexibility due to the schools' heavy curriculum and academic orientation, especially at the secondary level. In general, workshop participants acknowledge that it is necessary to integrate the HRE curriculum with related subjects and activities. However, the existing school curriculum is composed of many different subjects with their own concerns and course hours. It is thus not easy to implement HRE without labeling a subject HRE. Even employing an integrated approach, it is better to require that courses—such as citizenship education, moral/value education and relevant activities—allot a certain number of hours to HRE. The workshop experience tells us that willing and enthusiastic teachers are the key to effective HRE. We also need a school environment that promotes human rights. How do we make schools sensitive to human rights issues? The question relates not only to the school environment but also to the hidden curriculum, which needs to be cautiously examined and borne in mind when developing the school curriculum on human rights. ---oOo---
National Council for Teacher Education Project on Human Rights and National Values for Teacher Educators C.H.K. Misra
Since 1995, the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) has been implementing a project called Human Rights and National Values for Teacher Educators, realizing from the beginning that teachers are the best agents for bringing the message of human rights to other teachers. The project has two main components: materials production and orientation of key resource persons. A brief outline of each activity follows. Material Production: Self-learning Module The council has published a two-volume module with five and four units, respectively. The first five units have already been translated into Hindi and the last four are to be published in Hindi very soon. The module has been widely circulated and acclaimed by teacher educators. It is self-instructional, as a special paper on human rights education (HRE) will not be part of teacher education in the near future. But if the teacher educator is sensitized and the teacher learner inspired by the educator, then HRE can be easily integrated into other related units of the curriculum. It is therefore imperative to rely on a "cascade model," which will orient key resource persons who will bring the message to the teacher learners. The module was developed after a series of meetings and discussions among the authors, reviewers and editors of the respective units. They were invited from many national-level educational bodies such as the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), the Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, and the University of Delhi. Volume 1 of the module contains the following:
This volume was extensively used in the orientation courses organized by the NCTE, which discussed each unit in detail. It was also sent to experts, scholars and educators throughout the country. Most commented that the NCTE's initiatives were laudable and that the module was well designed. The second volume of the module contains the following.
The units were developed after a series of meetings and discussions by persons invited from NCERT, IGNOU and University of Delhi. The units have been reviewed by eminent professors of political science from the University of Delhi. Material Production: Video Programs The council produced two well-accepted video programs illustrating the salient features of HRE with footage of pre-school, elementary and secondary school situations. Each is 20 minutes long and has been translated into Hindi. They were written and reviewed by a panel of experts from Educational Television Production. A 30-minute panel discussion in English on human rights and the role of teachers was also recorded. The panelists were K.P. Saksena, a political science professor, the director of the Institute of World Congress on Human Rights Education, a professor of political science and the author of books on HRE; Sh. Ramsaran Joshi, bureau chief of the newspaper Nai Dunia in New Delhi and author of many articles on human rights and the tribal people of Baster, Madhya Pradesh; and J.S. Rajput, a professor and the chairperson of NCTE. The discussion was moderated by V.R. Singhvi. It covers the meaning of human rights, the need for HRE in schools and teacher education programs, and the role of the teacher in propagating human rights at all levels of education. The programs have been shown extensively in orientation courses. Material Production: Monograph Human Rights and Indian Values was published and circulated by the NCTE to teacher education institutions throughout the country. The author is Justice Rama Jois, former Chief Justice of the High Court of Haryana and Punjab. The monograph is widely acclaimed by experts and reviewers alike. A Hindi version has been printed. Justice Rama Jois highlights laudable Indian values, drawing on the ancient scriptures as well as our Constitution. Orientation of Key Resource Persons Four workshops to orient key resource persons drawn from teacher education institutions have been organized with 30 to 40 participants each. More such orientation workshops are planned both at the regional and state levels. The workshops have been addressed by eminent jurists, judges, experts in political science, educators and scholars, including Justice R. N. Misra, former chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission; Justice Mallimath, former Chief Justice, Supreme Court of India; Sri Virender Dayal of the National Human Rights Commission; Shri Madhav Menon, vice-chancellor of the National Law School University, Bangalore; Justice Rama Jois; K.P. Saksena, a professor and the director of the Institute of World Congress of Human Rights Education; and other experts from UNESCO, New Delhi, and Common Wealth Human Rights Initiative. Journalists, activists and teachers also participated as resource persons. So far, over 100 teacher educators have been oriented through these workshops. State-level workshops on human rights and national values are organized by NCTE regional committees using the module as well as video material. The module is to be published in book form in Hindi and English for distribution to teacher education institutions. It is also being translated and adapted into various Indian languages. ---oOo---
An Experiment in Human Rights Education in Schools Henri Tiphagne
People's Watch-Tamil Nadu, established in December 1995, is the result of a few years of deliberations carried on by human rights activists in Tamil Nadu and other parts of India. It has the following goals:
Human Rights Education in School Programs People's Watch-Tamil Nadu is engaged in a series of human rights training activities. It held one training activity in November-December 1996, where some of the participants were teachers or headmistresses who expressed their desire to contribute to the growth and development of human rights education (HRE). Immediately after the program, four teachers and a few representatives of People's Watch-Tamil Nadu got together for a preliminary discussion, which led to planning to identify schools willing to participate. In January 1997, Ravi Nair, executive director of the South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre, New Delhi, asked us to test a draft manual for HRE containing five modules in a few schools in Tamil Nadu. We said yes, and decided to test them in the schools willing to participate in an HRE program. General Program Details The program was called HRE in Schools-Tamil Nadu (Phase I)-1997. We appointed an honorary coordinator to oversee it on behalf of People's Watch-Tamil Nadu in nine schools in Chennai. From January to April 1997, the honorary coordinator met the school heads, who confirmed their participation in the pilot program. The five modules were then translated into Tamil. The program was launched on 11 June 1997, with a meeting of the heads of the nine schools which had agreed to participate in the program. At the meeting it was stressed that the UN Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004) is ongoing and that the schools shall have the following obligations to:
People's Watch-Tamil Nadu committed itself to the following:
At the end of the meeting, the participants decided to launch the pilot program as a unique experiment in HRE in schools. Teacher training We realized that we had to orient and motivate the teachers for their task. We therefore offered the following programs to them. General Orientation Course (12-14 June 1997) The faculty were drawn from People's Watch-Tamil Nadu. The program aimed to provide the teachers with a general understanding of the political forces at work in society, the history of human rights and an introduction to actual violations of human rights in the country, and the different mechanisms that exist, both within and outside the country, for the protection of human rights. The teachers were given a wide array of reading materials and a copy of the curriculum materials to help them prepare for the next curriculum-training program. Human Rights Education—First Curriculum Training (10-11 July 1997) The faculty were drawn from the Indian Social Institute, Bangalore, and People's Watch-Tamil Nadu, Madurai. The program aimed to train teachers to handle the two modules assigned to them. The session was a participatory one where the faculty confined itself to the content and the teachers critically evaluated the methodology of the presentations. The teachers were requested to start teaching their human rights classes on 14 July. The Teachers' Co-ordinators for each school were chosen. One-day meeting of teachers of the pilot program with the author of the curriculum The author of the HRE curriculum, Ava Lee from Hong Kong, visited Chennai on 16 August 1997, upon the request of Ravi Nair, executive director of the South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre, New Delhi. One teacher from each of the nine participating schools as well as other experts took part in the one-day meeting, which gave everyone a chance to exchange views and discuss problems encountered in using the book in the classroom. Second Curriculum Training (1-2 September 1997) The teachers evaluated the entire program so they could learn from each other. It was the first time they talked about their strengths, weaknesses and progress. The session concentrated on topics such as domestic violence and girls. The teachers started to plan the valedictory program. School Visits by the Honorary Co-ordinator The Honorary Co-ordinator visited the schools three times from August to November in order to learn about the teachers' experiences from the teachers themselves and about the students' reactions from student representatives. The Honorary Co-ordinator also asked the headmistresses to encourage the teachers, while assuring them that the program would not disrupt school activities. During these meetings the organizers developed personal relationships with the teachers. Conduct of HRE Classes Although the model curriculum contained five modules, the teachers unanimously decided that only four modules would be handled during the program: Human Rights—An Introduction; Discrimination—Caste; The Girl Child; and Wife Battery. The module on genocide would not be used due to lack of time. Profile of the participating students/teachers
All teachers in the program were women; 35.6 percent were below 30 years old while 40 percent were 31 to 40 years old. Valedictory Function Over 1,800 students and 50 teachers and headmistresses from the nine schools took part in the Valedictory of Human Rights Education in Schools-Tamil Nadu (Phase I) held in Chennai on 5 December 1997. At the same time, they observed Human Rights Day. A prize was awarded to the winner of a human rights competition for schools conducted at the state level. Each school took part in the Cultural Fiesta on Human Rights, where various presentations demonstrated the themes handled in the classrooms. In the Human Rights Exhibition, the schools displayed charts and models related to the modules. Guest of honor Justice M. N. Venkatachalliah, chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission, New Delhi, was duly impressed; Thiru K. Anbazhagan, Education Minister of Tamil Nadu, offered his full support and guidance to the program. Assessment of the Program The participants decided to evaluate the program and plan for Phase II. A questionnaire was given out to 1,756 students. Separate questionnaires were prepared for the 45 participating teachers, 9 school heads, about 90 teachers who had not taught HRE, and about 184 students from three other schools who did not attend the HRE classes. Before the questionnaires were drawn up, the director of the Indian Social Institute, Bangalore, visited the schools along with the Honorary Co-ordinator and held detailed discussions with some of the school heads and teachers. After the questionnaires were drawn up and administered, data were tabulated by People's Watch-Tamil Nadu and interpreted by the Indian Social Institute, Bangalore, in February 1998. The results were then presented to all school heads, teachers and two student representatives from each school in order to get their feedback. Some of the important results of the assessment follow. Human Rights Education in Schools-Tamil Nadu (PHASE II), 1998-2000 The second phase of the program for the period of 1998-2000 has the following objectives:
Perspective of the Program With the demise of communism, humankind is now confronted with two new opposing perspectives—the free market and human rights. With its emphasis on unrestricted freedom and individual enterprise, the free market promises progress and prosperity. While there is growth, the stark reality of the poor also stares at us and asks two critical questions: Growth for whom? Progress at whose cost? The free market has already begun to hurt the marginalized. This situation is not new: marginalization began earlier. But now the market economy pushes the poor to the precipice through a double process of exclusion and alienation—exclusion from the mainstream of life, and alienation from life itself. Human rights activists must protect the rights of the marginalized and promote a human rights culture. In contrast to free-market thinking, the human rights perspective stresses that human beings have dignity and rights, that individuals are responsible for each other, that communities form a mosaic of pluralism. In essence, the human rights perspective underlines humanistic pluralism as an antidote to the homogenizing consumerist culture. United Nations Resolution 49/184 proclaimed a 10-year period (beginning 1 January 1995) the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education with a Plan of Action. It appeals to all governments to help implement the Plan of Action. It also calls upon all NGOs, especially those concerned with women, labor, development and the environment, and social justice groups, human rights advocates, educators, religious organizations and the media to become more involved in HRE. The "What" of Human Rights Education The point of departure for anyone engaged in HRE is a basic belief in human dignity. Everyone has within them the seed of human dignity. In the proper environment, this seed sprouts and grows. Even in hostile surroundings, it cannot be stifled. HRE does not propose to create human dignity, but to provide the conditions where dignity can blossom. The enabling process develops and fine tunes our sensitivity to human beings as persons with dignity and rights. When people become sensitive to human dignity and rights, they themselves change how they feel, think, speak and write, and how they view the world. The enabling process is not a one-way affair; it is a dialectical engagement. Sensitivity to the dignity of others is a reflection and recognition of one's own worth and dignity. The more one appreciates one's own worth, the more one respects the dignity of others. In this mutuality one discovers "the solidarity of human existence." Extended to the environment, solidarity becomes that of ecological existence. The enabling process shapes human consciousness and conscience. The promotion of a human rights culture is simply the sum total of dynamic transformative processes. The Scope of Human Rights Education Ours is a perspective that emphasizes human dignity and rights. Children are not merely people who are younger than adults. Women are not defined merely in gender terms in relation to patriarchal male domination. The dalit are not merely defined in relation to non-dalit in the caste hierarchy. Minorities are defined not merely in relation to the majority in a dominance-subservience relationship. Refugees are not simply externally displaced people. They are all valuable human beings who should be able to live life to the full. Nature is not an object to be dominated, exploited and used, but should be shared in the common heritage of life. Such clarity is essential if we are to drive home the point that children's rights, women's rights, the dalit's rights, refugees' rights are all human rights. Otherwise, we may forget, even negate, this important dimension and engage in fruitless polemics and destructive division. This does not mean that gender equation, social exclusion, exploitation of the dalit, refugee displacement and so on are not important. An analysis of the structural causes of their discrimination and marginalization, the mechanisms and processes of their exploitation and oppression, are valuable in any discourse on or praxis for social change. But we must ask the following questions about children, women, the dalit, refugees and minorities: Do they live as human beings with dignity? Do they have self-worth? Are they considered valuable as persons? Does society see them as "somebody"? The "Why" of Choosing Certain Social Groups It may be asked why we have chosen the above groups as our main concern. The reason is that they, more than others, collectively suffer:
They all share a suffering that is inflicted upon them by society through no fault of their own. They suffer at different levels (physical, psychological, social, economic and political, spiritual and cultural) and in varying degrees depending upon their social situation. They are excluded from the mainstream of life. They are alienated from themselves and from life itself. The "Why" of Our Interest in HRE What is the spring bow that commits us to this project? Is it because it's fashionable? "Good"? An adventure? No. The main, if not the only, motivating force is that we also suffer. We feel shame in the face of violence done to others. We are humiliated when our fellow human beings are humiliated. From the seed of our own dignity sprouts compassion and solidarity with those who suffer. Suffering is not simply an objective reality to be cognitively known and understood, but a subjective experience to be grasped, assimilated and personalized, leading toward transformation of self and environment. In other words, our destiny and that of those who suffer are bonded together. Target Group The target group for Phase II of the program is made up of students of the 8 Stand in 1998-1999 and the same students in the 9 Stand in 1999-2000. The students are drawn from 135 schools in 10 districts: Chennai, Coimbatore, Trichy, Karur, Dindigul, Madurai, Sivagangai, Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli. Around a third of the schools are girls' schools, another third boys' schools. The nine schools involved in Phase I were invited to join Phase II. All but one accepted. Around 25,000 students and 350 teachers will be involved in Phase II, assisted by 60 resource team members. Activities Training
Resource Materials
District-level Programs Activities
Assessment and Documentation
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