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Dowa Education and Reforms in Human Right Education in Japan: Access, Content, and What's Beyond Mariko Akuzawa
The Buraku issue is one of the most important human rights issues in Japan. Although the origin of Buraku communities is still under study, it is clear that Buraku discrimination has a long history (having been institutionalized by laws adopted during the feudal age) and has shaped the Japanese psychology. Discriminatory customs continued even after the Meiji government abolished the class system and the Buraku liberation movement was established in the early 1900s. The Buraku liberation movement is one of the first anti-discrimination movements of minority groups in Japan. It is also notable that the Buraku issue is the first human rights problem that the government attempted to solve (1965 Dowa Policy Council Report; Law for Special Measures for Dowa Projects, 1969). The law has been in force for nearly 30 years now and various projects have been undertaken to correct the inequality between Buraku and other Japanese communities. It is indispensable to discuss education on the Buraku issue (officially called Dowa education) in order to lay the ground for future human rights education (HRE) programs in Japan. Dowa Education and the Effort to Reform the Education System The Buraku are racially the same as the rest of the Japanese populace. They are the descendants of outcasts during the feudal era. The caste system was created to control the masses around the end of the 16th century. During the Tokugawa era, change of residence and occupation, and marriage among people from different classes were strictly forbidden. Social status became hereditary. It was abolished by the Meiji government in 1871 through an "emancipation law." However, the government did not take the necessary measures to ensure equality and the law remained a mere formality. After World War II, democratic reforms were carried out and a new constitution established during the American occupation. It was generally expected that Buraku discrimination would naturally disappear. However, long-established custom was not overcome so easily. Postwar economic reconstruction did not benefit the Buraku communities either. Discriminatory employment and business practices of the major companies prevented Buraku from working in the mainstream. Their jobs were restricted to unstable self-employment or subcontractual work. Although everyone was poor after the war, fewer Buraku than non-Buraku children attended school. Buraku children also had to work to help their families, who could hardly pay for textbooks and school meals. The teachers then took action. They came out of the schools and visited the communities and families of their absentee students, listening to their parents' hopes and requests. They committed themselves to the education movement hand-in-hand with the parents and the Buraku liberation movement to ensure equal rights for all children. For example, the law providing for free textbooks was promulgated in 1961, benefiting not only Buraku children but other Japanese children as well. Dowa education thus played an important role in reforming access to education for everyone. It also employed methods such as "Group Process" and Tsuzurikata [1] to encourage Buraku children to review their lives critically and surmount discrimination. Dowa education emerged from the struggle against discrimination, which campaigned against practices such as ekkyo ("going beyond the border," or not sending one's children to schools where Buraku children are enrolled). It was also necessary to educate non-Buraku children about Buraku discrimination in order to eliminate prejudice and to develop their empathy toward their Buraku friends. Education about the Buraku has thus grown popular in elementary and secondary education, especially in western Japan. Supplementary Dowa textbooks were produced. Dowa education led to reform of the school curriculum and legitimized the teaching of minority issues. Adult Education Programs There are two types of adult education: programs for Buraku adults who were deprived of an education when they were children (for example, adult literacy classes); and programs for non-Buraku to learn about the Buraku issue, many of which were started in early 1970s, when a new law provided for the improvement of living conditions in Buraku communities (Law for Special Measures for Dowa Projects, 1969). People in Buraku communities, encouraged by the achievements of the liberation movement and the new law, started to question the discrimination they faced everyday. Several cases of discrimination were reported by the mass media. However, this did not mean that discriminatory incidents suddenly increased, only that more people were objecting to discrimination. They requested national and local governments to start educational programs for non-Buraku adults to promote a proper understanding of the Buraku issue. The issue is dealt with at many community centers, schools (at Parents-Teachers Association assemblies, for example), and workplaces in the form of symposiums, lectures and small-group discussions, TV and radio programs, printed materials and signboards bearing "catchwords" against discrimination. It is not an exaggeration to say that almost all possible measures have been tried. Let me then analyze the effect of these efforts using the results of national surveys. Results of the 1993 Surveys In 1993, the Japanese government carried out surveys on awareness of the Buraku issue. Some 75 percent of the people surveyed are familiar with the Buraku issue and Buraku communities. The ratio is remarkably high in the Kinki region (western Japan) where Dowa education is extensive (Table 1). The means by which people first became aware of the Buraku differ depending on where they live. Fewer people in the Kinki region are informed by schools or adult education programs (which are supposed to provide bias-free information) compared to those in the Kanto (northeastern Japan) region. They tend to be informed by their families, relatives and friends (Table 2). However, it is also true that in the Kinki region, where Dowa education is widely enforced, there is remarkably better access to non-formal education programs on the Buraku issue. The Kinki region scores the highest in almost every program (Table 3). As a result, people in the Kinki region know more about the Buraku issue: 63.5 percent knew the origin of Buraku discrimination, and 10 percent more than the national average answered, "It was created politically in feudal society" (Table 4).[2] To the question, "Are you aware of the Law for Special Measures for Dowa Projects (enacted in 1969) under which various projects were conducted for the improvement of the Buraku communities?" 21 percent answered yes (Table 5). We can conclude that education programs have definitely improved the knowledge of the people about Buraku issue in this region. However, knowledge does not always help people abandon their prejudice, as can be seen in Tables 6 and 7. To the question, "How would you react if you found out that your neighbors were Buraku?" nearly 90 percent answered, "I wouldn't care and I would preserve our close relationship." Marriage, however, is a different story. The Kinki region had the lowest number of people who answered, "I will respect the will of my child," when asked, "What would you do if your child were getting married to someone from the Buraku community?" While people in the Kinki region are well informed about the Buraku issue, their attitudes toward marriage negate the value of such knowledge. As for opinions on teaching Buraku issues at schools and in adult education programs (Tables 8 and 9), it is surprising that the national percentage of "promote positively" responses is under 30 percent. Regarding adult education, 28.6 percent said "do it but not too much"—more than the 26.8 percent who said "promote it positively." In the Kinki region, 23.5 percent said "positively promote it" while 31.7 percent said "do it but not too much." Reform in the Education System through Participatory Methodology While Dowa education has helped people obtain the right knowledge about Buraku issues, many people continue to discriminate against the Buraku, and a serious backlash against Dowa education has emerged. HRE is necessary, but we need to reconsider its methodology and content. One-way transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the learner is not enough to cultivate empathy among learners. Repetitiveness also kills students' interest in the subject. Knowledge-centered teaching does not encourage learners to solve problems, but rather fosters helplessness ("Oh it is too much for me. I would rather not think about such a serious issue."). Teachers also try too hard to keep their classrooms discrimination-free, many of them repeatedly stressing the simple motto, "Do not discriminate others," which pressures learners to be "politically correct" rather than state their honest opinions. Teachers need new teaching methodologies to encourage learners to work for the solution of human rights problems rather than remain part of the silent majority. It is understandable that teachers would introduce participatory methodology in their human rights courses. They are inspired by the work of vanguard educators such as John Dewey or Paulo Freire. The best teaching materials were devised first by the development educators, then by global, environment, peace and human rights educators around the world. Participatory methodology is activity-based and employs simulation, role-playing, socio-drama, discussion and various other group activities. It offers the learners para-social experience, which teaches them democratic skills such as expressing their opinions, listening to others, and discussing and solving problems cooperatively. It de-emphasizes static or content goals, and encourages focusing on the learning process. It also believes that education must be affective and should facilitate cooperative human relationships in which learning takes place. Several textbooks on participatory methodology have been translated and introduced since the late 1980s. Recently, some teachers have published textbooks based on their own experiences. Some Criticisms on the New Methodology It cannot be denied that the introduction of participatory methodology has reformed HRE programs in Japan. However, I also have to mention the effect of adopting the new methodology. In 1996 and 1997, I conducted a survey of local government officials in charge of HRE program for adults (Akuzawa 1997). I was astonished by their reasons for using the new methodology: "Because it is enjoyable," "We need something different (from the previous methodology)" and "Because it does not touch on the Dowa issue directly" were fairly common. Is it cynical to say that the new methodology is welcomed only because it avoids serious human rights topics or issues, and attracts people with harmless games? What I would like to emphasize is that the new methodology may become meaningless if it does not take up human rights issues and if the learning process does not include an action program for the learners to address actual problems. Teachers have to know the limitations of the new methodology and take care not to be preoccupied only with its techniques. Otherwise, it will remain a mere psychological training program rather than a methodology for social change. Concluding Remarks The UN Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004) gives us a good opportunity to reconsider what we have and have not achieved in Japan. The work in Dowa education gave people access to education and placed human rights issues, especially the Buraku issue, in school curricula. However, we have paid little attention to the process of learning. Now we are setting the stage for the reform of existing HRE programs. Process-centered, participatory methodology challenges the traditional teaching methodology which assumes that teachers possess the knowledge that students merely receive. The new teaching methodology encourages learners to be actively involved in the program and to actively tackle problems in the real world. The new methodology, which is in its trial period, must overcome confusion and misunderstanding. Reform will take time, but I believe it is a necessary and important step toward future HRE programs that will encourage people to help build a democratic society.
End Notes [1]. Tsuzurikata is the
practice of making diary of daily experiences. References Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center. 1998. Human Rights Education in Asian Schools. Osaka: HURIGHTS OSAKA. Akuzawa, Mariko. 1997. "Jinken Keihatsu ni Okeru 'Sankagata-gakusyu'" (Problems Posed by the Introduction of Participatory Methodology in Human Rights Education). Buraku Kaiho Kenkyu (The Bulletin of Buraku Liberation) 114. ---oOo--- Results of the Survey on Human Rights Awareness in 1993 Note: Kanto includes Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefectures. Kinki includes Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Nara and Wakayama Prefectures. Table 1 Do you know that in Japan, there exist communities called Buraku and whose members suffer discrimination?
Table 5 Do you know the "Law for Special Measures for Dowa Projects" under which various projects were conducted for the improvement of Buraku communities?
Human Rights Education in Indonesian Primary Schools Djoehana Oka
Unlike Sri Lanka, Japan, India and the Philippines, Indonesia does not have a human rights course in schools. It does, however, offer at all educational levels a compulsory subject called Pancasila Moral Education and Civics (PMEC), in which, presumably unwittingly, the importance of human rights is brought up. Pancasila, meaning "five principles," is the Indonesian nation's life philosophy, and constitutes a belief in God, humanity, unity, democracy and social justice. The subject serves as a means to:
The teaching-learning process of PMEC abides by a set of guidelines. Those stipulated for the primary school include the following:
PMEC covers 90 topics evenly distributed among the six grades. Seemingly ambitious, actually many of the topics overlap, meaning that the same topic (sensitivity, for example) is taken up in several grades. A number of topics (love, compassion, humanity, care, public interest, for example) may fall under one category. As reorganized, therefore, there are actually 43 topics of which about 30 percent are either directly or closely related to human rights (Table 1) (Depdikbud 1994). Table 1 shows that many of the topics (with an asterisk) are either directly or closely related to human rights values and that they take about half the time allotted to PMEC, or approximately 102 meetings. Since so much time is spent on PMEC, which touches on human rights, the education authorities do not deem a special program for human rights to be necessary. Recent developments, as well as time-honored habits, however, do not justify this assumption. Arbitrary arrests, kidnapping, torture, detention, unfair trials and sentences by law enforcers, poor pay and a low standard of living, restrictions on the freedom of expression, and to top it all, religious, ethnic and racial discrimination and riots, all but prove that the PMEC program is ineffective, if not a failure. The seemingly less serious, but more frequent, human rights offenses, including insults, jokes and comments aimed at physical and mental defects, also show that the program is deficient. The problem does not lie so much in the nature of the program as in its implementation. Although it is true that the program lacks theoretical bases (for example, how are grade-specific topics determined?), its major drawback is poor application. My recent preliminary survey on the teaching-learning process of PMEC in six state primary schools in Malang revealed that cognitive objectives are the teacher's main concern, whereas affective and behavioral objectives are basically neglected or handled ineffectively. Students learn about the nature and importance of the values from books and from the teacher. Tasks are mainly textbook-based. Some teachers may go as far as using simulation and role-playing, and bringing students to occasional trips to museums, temples, train stations, recreation centers and the like. All six schools require students to contribute regularly to the alms box or to the building of a mosque as the only way to teach the students humanity. These findings show that the teachers do not understand the essence of human rights and human rights education (HRE), and support the conclusion of the 1997 Bangkok Meeting summary that teachers are among the major problems in HRE.
Table 1: Distribution of PMEC Topics among the Six Grades of the Primary School
Although I completely agree with the meeting's conclusion that government bureaucrats' negative attitude toward HRE is major obstacle, I also contend that correcting and improving HRE should start with the teacher. First, teachers are accessible. Second, they are generally positively inclined to attend training programs because they add color to their drab existence and credit points to their professional record. Third, and most important, because they exert an extraordinary influence on students, teachers are powerful, probably the most powerful, element in the teaching-learning process. A teacher training program in HRE as suggested by the meeting would, therefore, benefit teachers and PMEC in general. However, what teachers in Indonesia most fear about new ideas is that they may have to change the curriculum and teach for more hours. Their fears have to be allayed. New insights, ideas and strategies need not entail curriculum changes nor encumber the teacher with extra chores. In Indonesia, teaching human rights values is already integrated into an existing, relevant subject, which is taught for enough hours. No change in curriculum is necessary, but teachers must be more focused and use more effective presentations, strategies, materials, activities and evaluation techniques. In language art education, I found that most primary school teachers wish to learn different, more effective and more motivating teaching-learning methods and techniques, but at no inconvenience to themselves. I am certain that PMEC teachers feel the same way. Teaching training programs are usually initiated
from above by government, and private, local, regional and national authorities. Since
most authorities are "allergic" to HRE programs, they cannot be relied upon to
support them. However, people with NGO expertise in organizing human rights training
programs for a variety of audiences can initiate teacher training programs. It would be
excellent if such programs started among primary school teachers. References HURIGHTS OSAKA. 1997. "Human Rights, Culture and the Schools." FOCUS Asia-Pacific 10. Osaka: Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. 1994/1995. Jakarta: Depdikbud Kurikulum Pendidikan Dasar. 1994. Garis-garis Besar Program Pengajaran. Jakarta: Depdikbud. Sarna, Shirley. 1996. For the Dawn of a New Millennium : Human Rights Education. Quebec: Commission on Human Rights and Rights of Citizens. ---oOo---
Human Rights Teaching Methodology in Cambodian Primary and Secondary Schools Cambodian Institute of Human Rights
To date, 18,637 teachers and education officials have been trained in the Human Rights Teaching Methodology (HRTM) program of the Cambodian Human Rights Institute (CHRI). The teachers come from nearly 25 percent of all primary and secondary schools in Cambodia. They include senior master trainers, secondary school teachers, primary school master trainers, primary school teachers in training and primary school teachers. The most numerous were primary school teachers, 10,484 or 56 percent of the total, reflecting their numerical superiority in the schools. Results have been satisfactory despite the shortfall in funding, which was compensated for using various economic measures. Summary of Training
After surveying 32 schools in various provinces, we found that large majorities of the trainees learned the material well and were using it effectively in the classroom (94 percent success rate). Overwhelmingly, the trainees considered the training to be of high quality and useful. A majority also thought that it had a positive effect on attitude and behavior of students and teachers. The following is a statistical summary of the results of the field survey and questionnaires. Questionnaire Results for Teachers (October 1996)
Results of Field Survey (October 1996)
The institute engaged a professional evaluator to conduct a thorough headquarters and field evaluation of the HRTM program after the second year. The evaluation, conducted in November-December 1997, provided fresh information on project performance and enabled us to modify the program to make it more efficient and effective. The results of the training have been satisfactory: as of September 1996, 18,637 teachers and educational officials had been trained in human rights teaching methodology, which means that roughly 1 million pupils per year were exposed to the concepts of human rights and democracy. The efficiency of the training, using master trainers as multipliers, is also an important positive consideration. To date, each original master trainer has taught an average of 610 teachers. Scope of Influence of Training
Most of the trainees have mastered the material taught and are able to use it in the classroom. The written materials are highly usable for different levels of instruction. And—although this is most difficult to measure—a more positive attitude and behavior regarding human rights and democracy can be discerned on the part of teachers and students. We therefore conclude that the project has succeeded both in its direct training goals and in its larger objective of spreading the values of human rights, democracy and nonviolence throughout Khmer society and helping create a genuine democratic civic culture. Finally, the government strongly supports the project and human rights education (HRE), which is essential to ensure the permanence of and priority given to human rights instruction. Mastery of Material by Trainees All trainees took tests to determine their grasp of the material presented to them during the training sessions. Results indicate that a large majority (75 percent of secondary school teachers) gained a satisfactory or better understanding of the concepts taught. This figure is supported by teachers' self-reports in questionnaires, which also indicate that an overwhelming majority believe they understand the material and can use the methods in the classroom. The results are remarkably good given the educational background of the teachers. Because huge numbers of teachers were killed or exiled during the Khmer Rouge years, most teachers today have less—sometimes much less—than a high school education, and little teacher training. Their mastery of the material thus indicates both their high motivation and the quality of the training and training materials. We are also pleased by the progressive increase during the project of the skills of the trainers and the Education Ministry supervisory committees and local organizing committees. Appropriateness of the Material Through questionnaires, subsequent interviews, evaluation meetings and observations, we determined that the material presented to the teachers is appropriate to their classroom needs. Most of the teachers themselves consider the materials, methodology and instruction appropriate. Teachers have pointed out a variety of minor corrections that should be made in the curriculum, especially typographical or spelling mistakes. The teaching material is continuously refined and developed. Motivation Teachers in the program are highly motivated both to learn and to teach. This conclusion is supported by the statistical data as well as anecdotal observation. The questionnaires showed that 90 percent or more of the teachers found training "very important" or "important." The most frequent comment from teachers was that they wanted more training. The following observations also reveal how much many teachers sacrificed to attend the training:
Teaching Effectiveness in the Classroom The way teachers conduct demonstration and then real classes shows that they pass on human rights and democracy concepts to their students. Anecdotal evidence—such as the perfect scores of children in a televised human rights contest organized by CIHR for high school students who had been taught by teachers in the HRTM program—is also telling. There is, understandably, something lost between what the teachers have mastered and what the children learn. This can be remedied only if human rights classes are taught at all grade levels, so that what is learned in the fourth grade, for example, will be reinforced in the fifth. Reinforcement outside the classroom (such as electing student officers, as CIHR has suggested) will also help. The broader objective of the project, and the most difficult to measure, is not merely increasing knowledge about human rights, but inculcating respect for human rights among students. The evidence shows that the objective is being met. Further, information on teaching effectiveness and attitude change was obtained during the formal post-training evaluation. While we do not rely heavily on the results of the questionnaires, we do think they show that virtually all teachers believe that training, in general, is a positive experience, and one that is expected to change teachers' and students' behavior by as much as 80 percent. The following observations lead us to conclude that the training is effective even outside the classroom.
Sustainability of the Program A basic goal of the project is to make HRE a permanent and integral part of Cambodia's primary and secondary education system. Considerable progress has been made in this regard. It can be noted in terms of the human resources developed (teachers and master trainers who will be teaching human rights and methodology for years to come). It can also be seen in the official support and instructions of the government to include human rights in the permanent curriculum. Support comes from the first and second prime ministers, the minister of education, Education Ministry officials, provincial governors and their deputies, provincial education departments and school directors throughout the country. The government has officially adopted the HRTM curriculum and requires new teachers to undergo HRE training before they graduate. The Education Ministry has asked the CIHR to train all primary and secondary school teachers within five years as part of the official ministry plan for 1998-2002. Equally important, however, is the strong network of officials and teachers everywhere whose continuing commitment will ensure that the teaching will be done faithfully and well in all schools. The CIHR nurtures its ties with the trainees so that they can renew and strengthen their enthusiasm and commitment. The program seeks to create and strengthen a community of like-minded people who will continue to support human rights in and outside the classroom for many years to come. The Role of Women The project places special importance on the role of women, both as trainees and in terms of subject matter and methodology. The rights of women, including issues such as domestic violence, are an important part of the subject matter of the training and resource materials. Trainees are taught to encourage female students to stay in school and to emphasize women's issues. Demonstration classes indicate that the teachers have grasped these points; they are careful, for example, to call upon girls as well as boys to answer questions. Many teachers have noted this aspect of the CIHR program with approval, while observing as well that the equality of women goes against traditional Khmer culture. Nonetheless, the CIHR has been able to train in this area without conflict with the authorities. While the institute does not have the final say in selecting the trainees, it encourages the inclusion of women. Overall, the percentage of women among trainees is increasing, from 40 percent in October 1996 to 45 percent in October 1997. The percentage of women trainees is significantly higher at the primary level—the level now being taught—than at the secondary level: only 29 percent of the junior and senior high school teachers trained are women. Men and Women Trainees
Evaluative Comments (October 1996-October 1997) Certain informal evaluative observations can be made about the project for the period since the last progress report (October 1996-October 1997). Training was fully successful. Testing and observation of model classes reveal that teachers have grasped the essentials of the participatory methods taught by CIHR. They involve the students actively, as individuals and as groups, in discussions, games and other activities. They have learned to integrate human rights teaching into other subjects such as reading. And they have taken care to draw female students fully into class discussions. The number of female trainees remains substantial, slightly less than half (45 percent). The institute will continue to encourage the ministry to select female trainees in large numbers. The training remains cost-effective, with a high program multiplicating power (the figure indicating how many trainees each original master trainer has trained). Each original master trainer has now taught a minimum of 610 teachers, up from 354 a year ago. Program Multiplicating Power
Improvement in behavior is harder to measure. However, teachers generally report their belief that the training significantly changes their own and their students' attitudes and behavior. The coordinators perceive a greater receptivity to human rights and sensitivity toward women among trainees. The objective of having people know how to use their rights, and not only know about them, is being met. The enthusiasm and dedication of the teachers is remarkable. There is no absenteeism. Women students sometimes bring their nursing babies. The demand for books and posters by the trainees is very high. Some training sessions take place in one week, during which the school is closed, but some are spread out over 12 half-days. This means the teachers must first teach their normal class load and then travel, sometimes over a long distance, to the HRTM training site for another long session. Primary school teachers are not quite as adept at understanding the concepts presented as the secondary school teachers. This requires teaching at a lower level of complexity. Similarly, the primary school master trainers are not as strong as the secondary ones, in part because they practice their skills less. Government support remains excellent and has even increased. Provincial governors and district chiefs frequently come to opening and closing ceremonies. They often request that training be continued or expanded, and send thank-you letters after the training. They have even asked that all teachers be trained in their province or district. This is not possible, because the CIHR and Ministry of Education train a core group of teachers in each province or municipality (19 areas so far) who will then teach other teachers in the area, especially when external funding is no longer available. The Ministry of Education intends to train 10,000 to 12,000 teachers every year from 1998 to 2002. Collaboration with the ministry at all levels is very good. Interestingly, the training has drawn support from many local chief monks. They attend opening and closing sessions and ask that similar training be given to the population, especially before national elections. As they are highly respected, their support encourages broad community acceptance. Transportation remains a serious problem because poor road conditions make it almost impossible to reach some sites by land. (Some may be reached by air, but this is costly.) Hence four-wheel-drive vehicles would be extremely useful. For remote areas such as Koh Kong, Stung Treng, Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri, staff and materials must be transported by air. Costs are minimized by holding several classes at once—of primary school teachers, secondary school teachers and master trainers—with CIHR staff members as master trainers. (Normally, Mondulkiri should be supported by master trainers from Phnom Penh, but they are too occupied with other duties.) We have transported materials to other remote areas by asking speedboat or airplane passengers to carry them for us. Sometimes the messengers are members of the military and police who know the CIHR. Travel is also a problem for teachers, some of whom must travel long distances. In the case of classes in Kampot, teachers had to go 15 kilometers each way to the training site, so a dormitory was established at the training site. Some equipment, notably the project computer, is old and has started to malfunction. They should be replaced in the coming year. Facilities, especially in rural areas, are sometimes inadequate. Sometimes HRTM workshops (model classes) are difficult to arrange and conduct properly because of the lay-out of classes and the number of pupils (sometimes 60 to 70 per class). Funding is a major concern for the future of the project. Steadier and longer-term funding is needed to run the training smoothly without the interruptions that may slow its pace and increase per-trainee costs. Conclusion The project is proceeding well in all respects, except for the uncertainty of funding. A large core group has been instructed which will reach approximately 1 million school children each year. The Ministry of Education's long-term commitment to the project and training of a core group of teachers in each province or municipality contributes to the program's sustainability. HRTM training for all new teachers at the regional pedagogical schools will also extend the program's reach. (Teachers in training receive HRTM training in their last year, before they go out and begin teaching children.) We are especially encouraged by the highly positive attitudes toward this project of the master trainers, teacher-trainees and all levels of the Cambodian government, especially provincial officials and the Ministry of Education. We believe that this indicates that the teachers will enthusiastically teach what they have learned and that the Cambodian government will continue to support both training of teachers and classroom instruction in human rights over the long-term, with or without external aid. Informal methods of instruction have been shown to be a valuable and effective supplement to formal instruction. Magazine contests, TV and radio add to the knowledge of teachers and their supervisors as do the tens of thousands of copies of publications distributed by the institute to school teachers, education officials and school libraries throughout the country. Public attitudes are also positively influenced, creating a welcoming community environment for human rights training and practice.
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